The problem of the direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy <problema meposredstvennogo prevrascheniya khimicheskoy energii v elektricheskuyu<
Converting chemical energy into electrical energy
CHEMICAL ENERGY↗
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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.
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Radiant energy to electric energy converter
Radiant energy is converted into electric energy by irradiating a capacitor including an ionic dielectric. The dielectric is a sintered crystal superionic conductor, e.g., lanthanum trifluoride, lanthanum trichloride, or silver bromide, so that a multiplicity of crystallites exist between electrodes of the capacitor. The radiant energy cyclically irradiates the dielectric so that the dielectric exhibits a cyclic photocapacitive like effect. Adjacent crystallites have abutting surfaces that enable the crystallites to effectively form a multiplicity of series capacitor elements between the electrodes. Each of the capacitor elements has a dipole layer only on or near its surface. The capacitor is initially charged to a voltage just below the dielectric breakdown voltage by connecting it across a DC source causing a current to flow through a charging resistor to the dielectric. The device can be utilized as a radiant energy detector or as a solar energy cell.
Sher, Arden↗
An Introductory Guide to Generating, Using, and Storing Energy: Understanding electricity, energy storage, microgrids, and related technologies
This guide was created to empower Energy Storage for Social Equity (ES4SE) community members to learn more about power systems, energy distribution, renewable energy, and battery storage systems. It was developed in an accessible format for audiences of varied backgrounds and requires no previous experience in energy storage. It is intended to serve readers as both an educational and reference document as they consider, procure, and deploy power systems that include battery energy storage technologies and microgrids in their communities. By providing an introductory overview of the basics of electricity, power generation, and household energy consumption and loads, this guide prepares readers to learn even more about battery energy storage, microgrid systems, and the sizing of solar and battery systems.
24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
Energy storage in combined gas-electric energy transitions models: The case of California
California’s vision for a net-zero future by 2045 relies heavily on variable renewable energy systems. Thus, energy storage - particularly long-duration storage - could play a fundamental role in reliably supplying low-carbon electricity. We study energy storage using the BRIDGES model, a combined gas-electric capacity expansion model for California across multiple investment periods (2025-2045), modeled with progressively decreasing carbon emission targets to a zero emissions by 2045. This least-cost optimization model includes renewable gas production via power-to-gas, long-term storage of energy in gaseous form, electric energy storage such as through batteries and hydrogen storage, and renewable energy generation, all with capacity tracking and investment. Multiple scenarios are evaluated to examine the sensitivity of the optimal storage portfolio to system-level and sector-level parameters. The scenario results show that all electric energy storage systems - which vary in storage duration - are deployed and required in a net-zero California in 2045, amounting to around 75 GW of storage capacity. Lithium ion systems make up approximately 80% of this power capacity and supply most short-run storage needs. Hydrogen storage - in the form of a power-to-gas-to-power system - emerges as a replacement to conventional natural gas storage, comprising most of the total energy storage capacity (~ 4 TWh). This capacity is less than 5% of the current natural gas storage capacity (94 TWh), indicating sufficient room for repurposing part of the gas infrastructure. A demand-side sensitivity analysis proves that higher electricity demand correlates with more builds of Li-ion batteries, while higher industrial heat demand leads to more builds of long-duration storage systems in a net-zero economy. Furthermore, power-to-gas systems satisfy part of the industrial heat demand by locally supplying renewable gas, which overtakes the traditional centralized gas storage and transfers through pipelines, casting significant doubts on the future of the large-scale gas infrastructure.
03 NATURAL GAS↗
Status of photoelectrochemical production of hydrogen and electrical energy
The efficiency for conversion of electromagnetic energy to chemical and electrical energy utilizing semiconductor single crystals as photoanodes in electrochemical cells was investigated. Efficiencies as high as 20 percent were achieved for the conversion of 330 nm radiation to chemical energy in the form of hydrogen by the photoelectrolysis of water in a SrTiO3 based cell. The SrTiO3 photoanodes were shown to be stable in 9.5 M NaOH solutions for periods up to 48 hours. Efficiencies of 9 percent were measured for the conversion of broadband visible radiation to hydrogen using n-type GaAs crystals as photoanodes. Crystals of GaAs coated with 500 nm of gold, silver, or tin for surface passivation show no significant change in efficiency. By suppressing the production of hydrogen in a CdSe-based photogalvanic cell, an efficiency of 9 percent was obtained in conversion of 633 nm light to electrical energy. A CdS-based photogalvanic cell produced a conversion efficiency of 5 percent for 500 nm radiation.
Byvik, C. E.↗
Power Solitons in Inverter-based Electric Energy Systems: Observation, Analysis and Implications
The discovery of an unfamiliar class of nonlinear energy waves in electric energy systems with dominating coupled inverter-based energy resources has been reported in a recent research project. Whenever there are slight but persistent differences among the reference signals used by inverters in pulse-width modulation, i.e., a weak group modulation instability condition, the unfamiliar energy waves appear, which contain not only the familiar frequency components present in electric power systems but also self-organized components in the ultra-high frequency region of the energy spectrum. These components are found to be exploding solitary waves with concentrated energy masses, hence we call them power solitons. This paper explains the work of the discovery reported, and the implications of the presence of power solitons for grid integration of inverter-based resources and power system protection.
14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
Infrared transmissive concentrated photovoltaics for coupling solar electric energy conversion to solar thermal energy utilization
The use of photovoltaic (PV) cells to convert solar energy to electricity is becoming increasingly prevalent; however, there are still significant limitations associated with the widespread adoption of PV cells for electricity needs. There is a clear need for a high efficiency solar power system that supplies electricity at a competitive cost and that provides for an on-demand supply of electricity as well as energy storage. By combining aspects of concentrated solar power and concentrated photovoltaics, the present invention provides a device that enables the conversion of sunlight to electricity at very high efficiencies and that enables the transmission of thermal energy to heat storage devices for later use. The disclosed device enables transmissive CPV through the use of a multijunction PV cell mounted on a transparent base. The use of a multijunction cell allows for highly efficient absorption of light above the bandgap of the lowest bandgap subcell. The transparent base permits transmission of a high percentage of the remaining light below the bandgap of the lowest bandgap subcell. The present invention also discloses a method of generating electricity through the use of a transmissive CPV device. Sunlight is concentrated onto one or more surfaces of the device. High energy light is absorbed by a multijunction PV cell and converted directly to electricity, while low energy light is transmitted through the device into a thermal storage device, which may then be coupled to a heat engine to generate dispatchable electricity.
Escarra, Matthew David↗
Nanostructures for Electrical Energy Storage (NEES) (2020 Final Technical Report)
Nanostructures for Electrical Energy Storage (NEES, www.efrc.umd.edu) was an Energy Frontier Research Center supported by the DOE Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences, from 8/1/2009 to 7/31/2020. Led by the University of Maryland, NEES enjoyed extensive collaborations with its funded partners, including two DOE Laboratories and six universities. The NEES vision has been to reveal a set of scientific insights and design principles that can underpin a next-generation electrical energy storage approach, building on advances in nanoscale science and technology to achieve simultaneous high power and high energy over extended charge/discharge cycling. The vision is motivated by the recognition that scaling into the nano regime opens the door to new physical phenomena and that the tools enlisted in nanoscale research provide major new opportunities for the synthesis not only of materials at molecular scale but for structures at nano scale and above. NEES has translated this vision into its research program based on two observations. First, while the behavior of ions and electrons in electrolytes and in electrode materials is crucial to electrical energy storage (or more appropriately electrochemical energy storage), it is the transport of ion and electron charge between different structural components of a storage device that ultimately determine its performance. With it well recognized that the choice of electrode materials typically constrain ion transport kinetics as well as maximum ion concentration, the search for better electrode materials has been a primary driver of battery research. At the same time the synthesis of electrodes is typically based on aggregation of particles with varying size, shape, and orientation in the electrode. Together with the presence of additional materials to impart electrical conductivity and cohesion to the composite electrode, change in electrode materials is necessarily accompanied by structural changes at the nano/micro scale that are difficult to categorize and manage. From the beginning, NEES’ vision has been to create and study simpler, highly controlled spatial arrangements of known materials as battery components (electrodes, current collectors, and electrolyte) and to understand how design and structure above the molecular scale determines the energy storage performance available from known materials. Second, advances in nanoscience dramatically expanded the portfolio of synthesis methods, structural motifs, and new phenomena available for research. Some of these gave rapid access to new building blocks at the deep nanoscale (e.g., carbon nanotubes grown by self-assembly, nanoscale arrays formed by electrochemical self-alignment, monolayer films controlled by self-limiting reaction). Such advances served as the enabler for the NEES vision to be pursued experimentally through study of 3D structures created and controlled at the nano, micro, and meso scales. Here, we use meso as in the BES MESO Report, implying not only intermediate or varying length scales, but very much the way behavior is influenced by other factors including aggregation of nanocomponents at different densities and spatial configurations, statistical variations in the aggregates, hierarchical architectures in which they can be assembled, or local 3D configurations that result from the architectures. Over its life cycle, NEES has pursued two overarching goals: (1) to understand the scientific fundamentals of electrochemical storage from the nanoscale to the mesoscale; and (2) to create and learn from innovative, controlled, heterogeneous nanostructures, where such nanostructures can enable the first goal and serve as models for future paradigms in energy storage. Specific goals have included: Synthesize heterogeneous nanostructures comprised of multiple materials arranged in controlled fashion and characterize their behavior; Demonstrate and elucidate design principles for achieving simultaneous high power and high energy; Develop materials processes which enable precision control of thin layers and 3D structures; Investigate the impact of artificial interphases on electrode stability during ion insertion/deinsertion; Create dense arrays of nanostructures to understand how the architecture of these assemblies, along with nanostructure design, influences energy storage behavior at the mesoscale; Identify and understand the consequences of nanoconfinement and local inhomogeneities in 3D mesoscale arrays; Develop and apply computational models to stimulate, guide and interpret experiments.
25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
Resilience Development For Electric Energy Delivery Systems
The Resilience Development for Electric Energy Delivery Systems (ResDEEDS) tool walks users through the process of evaluating electric energy delivery systems (EEDS) for resiliency. It implements the steps of the INL Resilience Framework for EEDS and provides automated tracking of resilience planning and suggestions for mitigating hazards.
Culler, MeganJ.↗
Measurements of energy distribution and thrust for microwave plasma coupling of electrical energy to hydrogen for propulsion
A microwave plasma system for transfer of electrical energy to hydrogen flowing through the system has potential application for coupling energy to a flowing gas in the electrothermal propulsion concept. Experimental systems have been designed and built for determination of the energy inputs and outputs and thrust for the microwave coupling of energy to hydrogen. Results for experiments with pressure in the range 100 microns-6 torr, hydrogen flow rate up to 1000 micronmoles/s, and total absorbed power to 700 w are presented.
Morin, T.↗
Visible light to electrical energy conversion using photoelectrochemical cells
Sustained conversion of low energy visible or near i.r. light (>1.25 eV) to electrical energy has been obtained using wet photoelectrochemical cells where there are no net chemical changes in the system. Stabilization of n-type semi-conductor anodes of CdS, CdSe, CdTe, GaP, GaAs and InP to photoanodic dissolution is achieved by employing selected alkaline solutions of Na.sub.2 S, Na.sub.2 S/S, Na.sub.2 Se, Na.sub.2 Se/Se, Na.sub.2 Te and Na.sub.2 Te/Te as the electrolyte. The oxidation of (poly) sulfide, (poly)selenide or (poly)telluride species occurs at the irradiated anode, and reduction of polysulfide, polyselenide or polytelluride species occurs at the dark Pt cathode of the photoelectrochemical cell. Optical to electrical energy conversion efficiencies approaching 15% at selected frequencies have been observed in some cells. The wavelength for the onset of photocurrent corresponds to the band gap of the particular anode material used in the cell.
Wrighton, Mark S.↗
Resilience Framework for Electric Energy Delivery Systems (R.1)
The intent of this document is to provide a Resilience Framework for electrical energy delivery systems which can be applied to Distributed Wind. However, the framework is not limited by application to any resource or system. This framework represents the defined steps to a cyclical process similar in mechanism to both cybersecurity and risk frameworks, while providing a common set of language and process for all stakeholders involved. The need for this Resilience Framework was established in a previous document, “Distributed Wind Resilience Metrics for Electric Energy Delivery Systems.” One important characteristic we see in resilience is the unique needs and perspectives of different systems, geographies, resources, stakeholders, perceived risks, and consequences, which we term the distinctiveness property. This distinctiveness property drives the requirement to have a resilience framework or methodology that can be implemented by different types of organizations and systems. The process or methodology should be cyclic. Recognizing that a system’s resilience is based on finite resources and time, it must continually evolve through this framework’s risk management and capital investment steps at an appropriate pace for its distinctiveness property.
17 WIND ENERGY↗
Regional thermal and electric energy output of salt-gradient solar ponds in the U.S.
Salt-gradient solar pond thermal and electrical energy output was calculated for each of twelve regions within the United States as part of an effort to assess solar pond applicability and extent of requisite physical resources on a regional basis. The energy output level is one of the key factors affecting the economic feasibility of solar ponds. Calculated thermal energy output ranges from 6.9 Wt/sq m in Fairbanks, Alaska, to 73.1 Wt/sq m in Daggett, California, at an energy extraction temperature of 45 C. The output ranges from 0.0 Wt/sq m in Fairbanks to 63.2 Wt/sq m in Daggett at 60 C. Electrical energy output ranges from 0.0 We/sq m in Fairbanks to 3.11 We/sq m in Daggett. Although these estimates constitute a reasonable basis for regional comparison, site-specific analysis must be performed for an actual application design.
Singer, M. J.↗
Systems and methods for electrical energy storage
The present disclosure relates to an electrical energy storage apparatus which forms an interpenetrating, three dimensional structure. The structure may have a first non-planar channel filled with an anode material to form an anode, and a second non-planar channel adjacent the first non-planar channel filled with a cathode material to form a cathode. A third non-planar channel may be formed adjacent the first and second non-planar channels and filled with an electrolyte. The first, second and third channels are formed so as to be interpenetrating and form a spatially dense, three dimensional structure. A first current collector is in communication with the first non-planar channel and forms a first electrode, while a second current collector is in communication with the second non-planar channel and forms a second electrode. A separator layers separates the current collectors.
Duoss, Eric B.↗
Efficient Hydraulic-to-electric Energy Conversion for PCM-based Ocean Thermal Gradient Energy System to Power Uncrewed Underwater Vehicles
Since the 2000, there have been numerous investigations into electrical energy storage types that use ocean thermal-to-electricity conversion techniques. Field tests have demonstrated that this technology is feasible for UUVs with long-term missions of over 3,000 km per deployment. Nonetheless, the energy generated by this method is not sufficient to meet the energy requirements of Unscrewed Underwater Vehicles (UUVs). The objective of this study is to design a highly effective ocean thermal gradient energy system to support long-term missions of a UUV. To enhance the performance of the thermal gradient energy system, we have developed a hybrid type (buoyancy regulation and electrical storage). Phase Change Material (PCM)-based energy harvesting system to facilitate efficient UUV operations. A prototype of the hydraulic-to-electric conversion system was implemented, and experimental findings indicate that the hybrid system successfully delivers hydraulic energy for buoyancy change and improved efficiency of hydraulic-to-electric energy conversion, demonstrating its potential as a promising technology for supporting long-term UUV missions.
Deng, Zhiqun↗
ELECTRICAL ENERGY FROM BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Biochemical fuel cell - an answer to waste management in closed ecological systems - electric energy source
WASTE DISPOSAL↗
Distributed Wind Resilience Metrics for Electric Energy Delivery Systems: Comprehensive Literature Review
While most people have a general concept of what it means to be “resilient,” an examination of definitions from different sources reveals that there are key commonalities but key differences as well. The lack of a generally accepted definition and application of resilience extends to electric energy delivery systems. Without an accepted definition, it is difficult to implement programs or processes to improve resiliency. In this paper, existing work from industry, regulatory bodies, and national laboratories to define and apply resilience to electric energy delivery systems is studied to understand the key components to define resilience and better understand associated metrics. This understanding is then applied to distributed wind for a specific example of how resilience of a system is affected by the technologies and generation sources used to support it. A key finding is that there is no “one size fits all” process for resilience. Each system has a “distinctiveness” characteristic, which qualifies the possibility of differences in resilience due to different threats, geography, stakeholders, risk tolerance, and mitigations. The distinctiveness characteristic extends to distributed wind, where different configurations may lend the distributed wind to contribute to the resilience of systems in a variety of ways. The findings of this research demonstrate the need for a resilience framework that can be readily applied by stakeholders to improve resilience based on the specific system, threat, risk tolerance and stakeholders.
17 WIND ENERGY↗
RF evaluations of the Stray Electrical Energy Indicator /SEEI/ Final report
Radio frequency sensitivity evaluation of stray electrical energy indicator
Mohrbach, P. F.↗