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DOE OSTI2023

Status and future plans for C 3 R&D

C 3 is an opportunity to realize an e + e - collider for the study of the Higgs boson at √s = 250 GeV, with a well defined upgrade path to 550 GeV while staying on the same short facility footprint. C 3 is based on a fundamentally new approach to normal conducting linear accelerators that achieves both high gradient and high efficiency at relatively low cost. Given the advanced state of linear collider designs, the key system that requires technical maturation for C 3 is the main linac. This paper presents the staged approach towards a facility to demonstrate C 3 technology with both Direct (source and main linac) and Parallel (beam delivery, damping ring, ancillary component) R&D. The primary goal of the C 3 Demonstration R&D Plan is to reduce technical and cost risk by building and operating the key components of C 3 at an adequate scale. This R&D plan starts with the engineering design, and demonstration of one cryomodule and will culminate in the construction of a 3 cryomodule linac with pre-production prototypes. This R&D program would also demonstrate the linac rf fundamentals including achievable gradient and gradient stability over a full electron bunch train and breakdown rates. It will also investigate beam dynamics including energy spread, wakefields, and emittance growth. This work will be critical to confirm the suitability of the C 3 beam parameters for the physics reach and detector performance in preparation for a Conceptual Design Report (CDR), as well as for follow-on technology development and industrialization. The C 3 Demonstration R&D Plan will open up significant new scientific and technical opportunities based on development of high-gradient and high-efficiency accelerator technology. It will push this technology to operate both at the GeV scale and mature the technology to be reliable and provide high-brightness electron beams. The timeline for progressing with C 3 technology development will be governed by practical limitations on both the technical progress and resource availability. It consists of four stages: Stage 0) Ongoing fundamental R&D on structure prototypes, damping and vibrations. Stage 1) Advancing the engineering maturity of the design and developing start-to-end simulations including space-charge and wakefield effects. This stage will include testing of strucutres operating at cryogenic temperatures. Beam tests would be performed with high beam current to test full beam loading. Stage 2) Production and testing of the first cryomodule at cryogenic temperatures. This would provide sufficient experimental data to compile a CDR and it is anticipated for Stage 2 to last 3 years and to culminate with the transport of photo-electrons through the first cryomodule. Stage 3) Updates to the engineering design of the cryomodules, production of the second and third cryomodule and their installation. Lower charge and lower emittance beams will be used to investigate emittance growth. The successful full demonstration of the 3 cryomodules to deliver up to a 3 GeV beam and achieve the C 3 five gradient will allow a comprehensive and robust evaluation of the technical design of C 3 as well as mitigate technical, schedule, and cost risks required to proceed with a Technical Design Report (TDR).

radiation hardened magnets↗

DOE OSTI2024

PETSc/TAO Users Manual V.3.21

This manual describes the use of the Portable, Extensible Toolkit for Scientific Computation (PETSc) and the Toolkit for Advanced Optimization (TAO) for the numerical solution of partial differential equations (PDEs) and related problems on high-performance computers. PETSc/TAO is a suite of data structures and routines that provide the building blocks for implementing large-scale application codes on parallel (and serial) computers. PETSc uses the MPI standard for all distributed memory communication. PETSc/TAO includes a large suite of parallel linear solvers, nonlinear solvers, time integrators, and optimizers that may be used in application codes written in Fortran, C, C++, and Python (via petsc4py; see Getting Started ). The library is organized hierarchically, enabling users to employ the abstraction level most appropriate for a particular problem. By using techniques of object-oriented programming, PETSc provides enormous flexibility for users.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2024

SRNL Nuclear Material Management Strategy

Started in FY22 to categorize with the goal of determining assets and liabilities for the new management team and reducing SRNL’s excess inventory. • Allow for program growth within the current material limits. • Prior to FY22 inventory was a ‘blackbox’. • No formal system for tracking utilization or future needs until items arrived. • Created friction between management and researchers • Slowed down incoming projects • Risk of breaking safety and/or security limits • Risk of jepardizing program growth.

Ramsey, Catherine M.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Fiscal Year 2025 Software Quality Assurance Activities for the ARC Software

The continued goal of the ARC SQA project in the Advanced Reactor Technologies program of DOE is to resolve the QA gaps for the ARC software that limit, or prevent, commercialization of the software for industry users. This project started in earnest in fiscal year 2023 which saw the entire code system moved from a SVN repository to a GitLab repository and an associated software quality assurance plan (SQAP) developed and ratified. Most of the QA gaps in the ARC software were identified in collaboration with industry partners and work begin in fiscal year 2023 and continued through 2024 and 2025. The continuous integration testing was extended to RCT, DASSH, and SE2ANL. Minor changes were required to the original continuous integration methodology to make this happen. When full confidence in the methodology is complete, a report will be created to detail the automated regression testing methodology and minor reports will be created to detail the tolerance settings that have been applied to the output for each ARC code. The primary documentation that is missing includes user manuals, user guides, software verification reports, and code coverage assessments. The DASSH, SE2ANL, and SE2RCT manuals were completed this fiscal year. A review of the SE2ANL software identified that it is unrealistic to include updated correlations or different geometry models and it was scheduled for deprecation in favor of DASSH. The SE2ANL manual is essential for SE2RCT as they are similar but quite different in purpose. The only piece of software missing a manual consistent with the source code is NUBOW-3D which is a focus of the coming year. The code coverage report for DIF3D was updated and code coverage reports were created for REBUS, RCT, PERSENT, GAMSRC, and DASSH. Minor coverage issues were identified for all of these pieces of software which did not prevent the work done to transition them to the OneAPI compiler. Because SE2ANL was scheduled for deprecation, it was not transitioned, but it was successfully tested with the OneAPI compiler. This leaves SE2RCT and NUBOW-3D as the only pieces of software not transitioned to OneAPI and further work is required to get SE2RCT to work properly. The SE2RCT software transition will begin early next year while the NUBOW-3D software requires a manual before it can begin. Software verification work has been completed for DIF3D, REBUS, GAMSOR, GAMSRC, VARPOW, EvaluateFlux, and SUMMAR. The PERSENT software verification work was completed this year which was somewhat delayed because of unexpected bugs in the software. The PERSENT manual was updated to detail some of the issues and discuss the bowing reactivity worth feature added in the previous fiscal year. The RCT, DASSH, SE2RCT, and NUBOW-3D software are the only maintained pieces of software without verification reports. The software verification work for DASSH will be a focus in the upcoming fiscal year and it is hoped that some of the test cases created can serve as verification tests for SE2RCT. The NUBOW-3D work will begin when the manual and requirements report are completed. Only minor industry partner software development funds were provided this year. The DASSH software was updated to handle general axial geometry for each assembly and the NUBOW-3D software was updated to incorporate a new input format and better output. Overall progress on resolving the QA gaps has been good this year.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Fiscal Year 2025 Software Quality Assurance Activities for the ARC Software

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2022

Start-up Optimization Considering Integrated Power Electronic Systems

The startup of systems composed of power electronic systems is becoming more complex. As the systems grow, standard pre-configuration sequencing methods will struggle. This work proposes a linear programming optimization method to couple power electronic systems in a series of startup commands. This formulation is demonstrated in a real-time implementation on hardware.

Starke, Michael↗

DOE OSTI2024

Multifamily Weatherization Resources: Getting Started

This presentation is part of a session providing an overview of the multifamily weatherization process from programmatic, technical, grantee, and Subgrantee perspectives and feature a panel discussion exploring the day-to-day activities of a multifamily program and how they differ from single-family weatherization projects.

ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATION,↗

DOE OSTI2021

Enhancing Active Distribution Systems Resilience by Fully Distributed Self-Healing Strategy

Distributed restoration can exploit smart grid technologies to enhance the resilience of active distribution networks toward a self-healing smart grid. However, the large number of decision variables, especially the binary ones for reconfiguration, bring challenges to developing scalable distributed distribution service restoration (DDSR) strategies. This paper proposes a fully distributed solution procedure based on the alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM) for mixed-integer programming problems and applies to develop the DDSR framework. The method consists of relax-drive-polish phases, 1) relaxing binary variables, and applying the convex ADMM as a warm start; 2) driving the solutions toward Boolean values through a proximal operator; 3) fixing the obtained binding binary variables and solving the rest of the problem to polish results and achieve a high-quality suboptimal solution. Then, an autonomous clustering strategy and consensus ADMM are integrated with the proposed method to realize the fully distributed cluster-based framework of DDSR. This framework can first determine DER scheduling and switch status for reconfiguration to energize the out-of-service areas from local faults, and then provide the load restoration solution in a distributed manner for total blackouts in large-scale distribution networks. Furthermore, the effectiveness and scalability of the proposed DDSR framework are demonstrated through testing on the IEEE 123-node, IEEE 8500-node, and synthetic 100k-node test feeders.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2023

Dispatch optimization of electric thermal energy storage within System Advisor Model

A stand-alone electric thermal energy storage (ETES) system converts low-value electricity into heat using resistance heating elements. During periods of high-value electricity, an ETES system uses a thermodynamic power cycle to convert stored thermal energy back to electricity. These dispatchable systems derive value from their ability to store energy when prices are low and generate electricity when prices are favorable, i.e., energy arbitrage. Consequently, dispatch optimization of system operations, through maximizing revenue subject to system constraints, is essential to evaluate the economic value of a particular system design. While stand-alone ETES systems offer potential advantages as dispatchable grid storage technologies, there is a lack of a neutral third-party, publicly available, open-source model to evaluate the performance, dispatch, and financial viability of these systems. To address this problem, we have developed a techno-economic model for stand-alone ETES systems, within National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL's) System Advisor Model (SAM). We implement a mixed-integer linear program to determine an ETES optimal operating schedule that maximizes electricity sales less maintenance costs caused by operation and cycling given temporal-varying grid electricity prices. Our contributions include a mixed-integer linear program for energy arbitrage of an ETES system, an ETES performance model through a publicly-available software (i.e., SAM), and an exercise of our model through case studies that compare ETES operational strategies and annual financial metrics. With our dispatch optimization model, we were able to improve revenue by 20% compared to a myopic heuristic while reducing the operational cost of the ETES system through decreases in cycle starts, cycles per day, and heater starts.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2023

Robust In-Situ Strain Measurements to Monitor CO 2 Storage

The goal of this project was to develop and demonstrate robust instrumentation to monitor the in-situ strain tensor in order to improve the reliability and security of CO 2 storage in geologic formations. We met the original goals of the project and the major overarching accomplishment is the advancement of strain tensor monitoring from an intriguing concept to a commercially available technology with a solid foundation of novel instruments supported by theoretical analyses and validation experiments. The main accomplishments of the project are summarized below. We designed, built and evaluated nine new optical fiber strainmeters and tiltmeters using Michelson interferometers to measure deformation with ultra-high resolution at both shallow and deep point locations in the subsurface. These are the robust strainmeters that motivated the title of the project. We designed, built and evaluated a novel method of measuring distributed strain in optical fibers with nanostrain resolution, and cm-scale location, and sampling into the seismic band. The new method is called Coherence-length-gated Microwave Photonics Interfereometry (CMPI). CMPI technology has advantages over existing commercial DAS and DSS methods. We developed and demonstrated capabilities to deploy instruments in the field and used them to measure strain caused by ambient signals like barometric pressure and tides, as well as induced signals like surface loading and pore pressure changes from pumping tests. We deployed a working strainmeter at 1,700 ft depth, slightly above an active reservoir. This is to our knowledge the greatest depth a strainmeter has been deployed and the techniques we used can readily be extended to greater depths. Optical fiber borehole tensor strainmeter techology was advanced from a TRL 4 at the start, to a TRL of 7 at the conclusion of the project. The project included advances in simulations and theoretical analyses. We developed and demonstrated a computational workflow that uses machine learning to reduce the computational requirements and make it practical to use Bayesian inversion to solve large numerical poroelastic analyses needed to interpret strain tensor field data. We evaluated the strain tensor fields and time series that would be caused by leaks of CO 2 or other fluids from reservoirs. These simulations demonstrated that signals from leaks could be measured with instruments developed for the project, opening a potentially new method for ensuring storage security. We showed that strains in caprock can be used to estimate pressure in a reservoir. This avoids the need to drill monitoring wells into the reservoir, and it expands the capabilities of monitoring in the caprock. The project includes a derivation and application of a novel analytical solution to the strains in the vicinity of a pressurized poroelastic inclusion. This solution explains field data measured during injeciton tests at the North Avant Field, and it will simplify future interpretation of strain tensor data. The project included a broad range of experiments, and of the most significant is the characterization of the strain tensor at an array three strainmeters during six injection tests at the North Avant Field, Oklahoma. This demonstrated repeatability of the strain signal measured by the new instruments developed for the project, and it showed similarities between the strain signal at shallow depths and pressure in the underlying reservoir. We also demonstrated that useful strain data can be measured at reservoir depths. This confirms that strain tensor data can be measured throughout the caprock over a reservoir. The project demonstrated the feasibility of using the strain tensor and distributed strain measured in caprock during a variety of different well tests where the pumping rate was constant, sinusoidal and positive, or a periodic square wave with zero net rate. This further strengthens the validity of using strain data to characterize reservoirs and aquifers. We also demonstrated that strain caused be fluctuations of air pressure and water pressure in the vadose zone can be measured and interpreted, suggesting that high resolution distributed strain measurements hold promise for monitoring the vadose zone. The project partially supported nine graduate students in the Environmental Engineering, Hydrogeology, Electrical Engineering programs at Clemson University. The research was described in nine journal papers, 23 talks and conference abstracts. Additional journal papers are in preparation. A new company called Tensora was started to provide strainmeter technology for commercial applications.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2024

Bench-Scale Testing of Monolithic PPI Structured Contactors for Direct Air Capture of CO 2

The overall project objective was to develop, optimize and bench-scale test the integrated embodiment of a leading direct air capture (DAC) sorbent composition, linear-poly(propylenimine) (l-PPI), in a structured material system, specifically a monolithic contactor for achieving low pressure drop, to justify its further scale-up in a subsequent program. The project team was led by CORMETECH, a leading monolithic gas/solid contactor manufacturer for environmental applications, and included Global Thermostat, a well-known DAC start-up, and Georgia Tech, a prominent US academic institution in carbon capture and DAC. The monolithic contactor for l-PPI in this project employed an advanced, cost-effective fabrication technique from CORMETECH, namely a porous monolith substrate directly impregnated with the amine, an approach contrasting to the traditional wash-coating methods used for activating monoliths. The l-PPI monolithic contractor is targeted for use in DAC systems such as the Global Thermostat DAC process, which involves the cyclic operation of ambient air flow over a monolithic amine contactor followed by steam-mediated thermal desorption and CO 2 collection, maximizing volumetric productivity while reducing the auxiliary power required to capture CO 2 from air. The Global Thermostat DAC process currently utilizes poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI) materials as baseline sorbents, which are subject to oxidative degradation and slow capacity fade at the elevated temperature required for efficient CO 2 removal. Georgia Tech, with Global Thermostat, had discovered in lab-scale efforts that l-PPI had superior resistance to oxidative degradation compared to PEI, with similar CO 2 adsorption capacity. While the novel l-PPI sorbent offers significant advantages over PEI for DAC, including potential design simplification and increased process efficiency, it is not commercially available, and prior to this project, had not yet been evaluated on the bench-scale in a structured contactor.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Virtual Power Plant Profiles and Inventory

Increased adoption of distributed energy resources (DERs), growing quantities of renewable energy on the grid, and load growth from buildings, industry, and data centers are driving the need for increased demand flexibility and solutions to reliably and cost-effectively balance electricity supply and demand. In order to deploy DERs on a similar scale as conventional supply-side resources, utilities and state decision-makers are exploring a range of programmatic approaches and market designs, including Virtual Power Plants (VPP). Based on interviews with more than twenty subject matter experts on VPPs, the Insights into Scaling Virtual Power Plants report and appendix outlines actions that utilities and regulators can take to expand VPPs, organized around successful VPP designs, deployment, and operation. The companion report, Virtual Power Plant Profiles and Inventory describes three conceptual profiles that can be used as a starting point to facilitate clear discussions among regulators, utilities, solution providers, and stakeholders about various VPP strategies. It also includes details on more than 790 demand response programs and net energy metering solar plus battery programs, and 180 VPP programs. The Inventory is provided below as a separate file.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2022

Simulation of CEFR neutronic start-up tests with FENNECS

This paper presents simulation results of selected Neutronic Start-up Tests of the China Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) obtained by the neutronics code FENNECS that have been performed within the frame of the IAEA Coordinated Research Program I31032. The Finite Element Neutronics code FENNECS is developed at GRS and solves the few-group steady-state and transient diffusion equation using a Galerkin-based finite element approach. Its main purpose is the safety assessment of Small Modular Reactors and Micro Reactors with complex geometry (e.g., rotating control drums) which gain increased interest internationally. Serpent has been applied to create reference models of the CEFR and cross-section libraries in 10 energy groups for FENNECS. Using these libraries, the following experiments have been simulated with FENNECS: net criticality, control rod integral and differential worth, void reactivity effect, subassembly exchange reactivity effects and reaction rate distribution. The obtained satisfactory agreements with the measurements represent a valuable contribution to the validation of FENNECS. (author)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Driving the Shift to Energy-Efficient and Climate-Responsible Commercial Refrigeration Equipment in Chile

This report provides an overview of global and Chile-specific market trends, technological advancements, and policy developments related to commercial refrigeration equipment, with an emphasis on refrigerated display cabinets. Section 2 examines CRE market trends at the global and Chilean levels. Section 3 presents CRE energy consumption and the latest technological options for improving energy performance. It also discusses low global warming potential (GWP)1 refrigerant options for CRE. Section 4 provides a cost-effectiveness analysis. Section 5 reviews other regional energy efficiency standards and labeling programs and offers potential standard requirements for Chile. Section 6 concludes the report by summarizing key findings and conclusions. Finally, Appendix A provides detailed guidelines intended as a starting point to inform policies and programmes.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2023

A Pulse Generation Framework with Augmented Program-aware Basis Gates and Criticality Analysis

Near-term intermediate scale quantum (NISQ) de- vices are subject to considerable noise and short coherence time. Consequently, it is critical to minimize circuit execution latency. Traditionally, each basis gate of a transpiled circuit is decoded into a fixed episode of the device control pulses. Recently, people started to investigate merged pulse generation for customized gates through quantum optimal control (QOC). However, existing QOC approaches face the challenges of (i) restricted search space due to prohibitive compilation overhead; (ii) suboptimal end-to-end performance due to aggressive local optimization and falsely introduced dependency among the customized gates; (iii) inadequate adaptivity towards system calibration, which is critical for NISQ devices. In this work, we propose PAQOC, a novel QOC framework that can (i) automatically detect frequently encountered gate patterns in the logical circuit by modeling the problem as a subgraph mining process and reuse these patterns to enable much larger search space exploration (i.e., program aware); (ii) systemically construct customized gate-set based on the impact to the overall program latency (i.e., criticality-aware); and (iii) quickly adapt to system re-calibration thanks to the small-scale pattern-based gate generation (i.e., adaptivity-aware). PAQOC achieves a good tradeoff between circuit performance and compilation time, allowing fully automatic, single stop, ad- hoc customized pulse generation for more efficient execution of user programs on NISQ devices. Evaluations using fifteen applications show that PAQOC can achieve on average 1.95× speedup of the circuit latency and achieve on average 36.7% reduction in compilation overhead. With PAQOC, circuits can run faster with reduced noise, allowing deeper circuits to be tested within the coherence time of present NISQ platforms.

Chen, Yanhao↗

DOE OSTI2023

Piecewise linear approximation with minimum number of linear segments and minimum error: A fast approach to tighten and warm start the hierarchical mixed integer formulation

In several areas of economics and engineering, it is often necessary to fit discrete data points or approximate nonlinear functions with continuous functions. Piecewise linear (PWL) functions are a convenient way to achieve this. PWL functions can be modeled in mathematical problems using only linear and integer variables. Moreover, there is a computational benefit in using PWL functions that have the least possible number of segments. This work proposes a novel hierarchical mixed integer linear programming (MILP) formulation that identifies a continuous PWL approximation with minimum number of linear segments for a given target maximum error. The proposed MILP formulation also identifies the solution with the least maximum error among the solutions with minimum number of segments. Then, this work proposes a fast iterative algorithm that identifies non necessarily continuous PWL approximations by solving O(S log N) linear programming (LP) problems, where N is the number of data points and S is the minimum number of segments in the non necessarily continuous case. This work demonstrates that tight bounds for the MILP problem can be derived from these approximations. Next, a fast algorithm is introduced to transform a non necessarily continuous PWL approximation into a continuous one. Finally, the tight bounds and the continuous PWL approximations are used to tighten and warm start the MILP problem. The tightened formulation is shown in experimental results to be more efficient, especially for large data sets, with a solution time that is up to two orders of magnitude less than the existing literature.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2023

140,142 Ce Neutron Cross Section Resolved Resonance Region Evaluation

A resolved resonance region evaluation of 140,142 Ce was conducted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Requested by the US Nuclear Criticality Safety Program, this evaluation is based on recent high-resolution transmission and capture high-resolution measurements of nat Ce and 142 Ce conducted at JRC-Geel at the Geel Linear Accelerator facility. It is also based on recently measured thermal constants available from the EX FOR database. Starting from the resonance parameters from the ENDF/B-VIII.0 library and following a preliminary R-matrix analysis, an updated set of resonance parameters and corresponding covariance in formation was derived by the fit of these experimental datasets using the Reich–Moore approximation of the R-matrix theory, as implemented in the SAMMY code system. The resolved resonance region upper energy limit for 140 Ce was kept at 200 keV, whereas the 142 Ce resonance region was extended from 13 to 26 keV. This new evaluation was found to be in good agreement not only with several integral quantities of interest to the reactor physics community, but also with the stellar Maxwellian-averaged cross section.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2021

Tank 48H Tetraphenylborate Mitigation: Simulant Studies using Sodium Permanganate

Tank 48H currently holds legacy material containing organic tetraphenylborate (TPB) compounds from the operation of the In-Tank Precipitation (ITP) process. TPB was added during the ITP process to precipitate the otherwise soluble cesium as insoluble cesium TPB (CsTPB), but excessive benzene generation from TPB degradation curtailed this treatment method. The contents of Tank 48H, which include approximately 26.000 kg of potassium TPB (KTPB) and trace CsTPB, are not compatible with the waste treatment facilities at the Savannah River Site (SRS) since the organic content and the associated flammability issues pose a challenge to the salt processing and sludge processing facilities within the liquid waste system. An in-tank process to remove (or decompose) TPB safely would be of great value. Previous testing at Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) demonstrated the destruction of glycolate via chemical oxidation using sodium permanganate with simulated and radioactive waste. Scoping tests were performed to study the destruction of TPB to determine if the contents of Tank 48H would be amenable to the same type of destruction. Partial destruction of TPB was observed in Tank 48H simulants under mild conditions (e g., pH 11, room temperature) with no definitive indication of benzene generation. To build upon the success of the scoping tests, an additional study was requested to provide a better understanding of the underlying chemistry for Tank 48H content destruction using sodium permanganate. Three experiments were performed with Tank 48H simulants at 40 °C to determine the efficacy of using sodium permanganate for TPB destruction. Three starting pH values were selected: 1) pH 11 for comparison with the previous work at room temperature, 2) pH 10 as the minimum pH recommended by the Corrosion Control Program (CCP) for in-tank processing, and 3) pH 8 to determine the effectiveness of TPB destruction at near neutral pH. While below the allowable pH for the CCP, the experiment at pH 8 was performed to study the TPB-Permanganate reaction under more extreme conditions and further verify the potential for out-of-tank processing.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗