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At least 775 records · Page 43
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Inter-well connectivity detection in CO 2 WAG projects using statistical recurrent unit models

Routine well-wise injection and production measurements contain significant information on subsurface structure and properties. Data-driven technology that interprets surface data into subsurface structure or properties can assist operators in making informed decisions by providing a better understanding of field assets. Our machine-learning framework is built on the statistical recurrent unit (SRU) model and interprets well-based injection/production data into inter-well connectivity without relying on a geologic model. We test it on synthetic and field-scale CO 2 EOR projects utilizing the water-alternating-gas (WAG) process. SRU is a special type of recurrent neural network (RNN) that allows for better characterization of temporal trends, by learning various statistics of the input at different time scales. In our application, the complete states (injection rate, pressure and cumulative injection) at injectors and pressure states at producers are fed to SRU as the input and the phase rates at producers are treated as the output. Once the SRU is trained and validated, it is then used to assess the connectivity of each injector to any producer using permutation variable importance method, wherein inputs corresponding to an injector are shuffled and the increase in prediction error at a given producer is recorded as the importance (connectivity metric) of the injector to the producer. This method is tested in both synthetic and field-scale cases. The validation of the proposed data-driven inter-well connectivity assessment is performed using synthetic data from simulation models where inter-well connectivity can be easily measured using the streamline-based flux allocation. The SRU model is shown to offer excellent prediction performance on the synthetic case. Despite significant measurement noise and frequent well shut-ins imposed in the field-scale case, the SRU model offers good prediction accuracy, the overall relative error of the phase production rates at most producers ranges from 10% to 30%. It is shown that the dominant connections identified by the data-driven method and streamline method are in close agreement. This significantly improves confidence in our data-driven procedure. The novelty of this work is that it is purely data-driven method and can directly interpret routine surface measurements to intuitive subsurface knowledge. Furthermore, the streamline-based validation procedure provides physics-based backing to the results obtained from data analytics. This study results in a reliable and efficient data analytics framework that is well-suited for large field applications.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2019

Cryogenic Carbon Capture Development (Final Report)

This project extends and leverages the work completed under funding from ARPA-E and other sources by exploring aspects of the Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC) process and issues discovered during those projects, but that were not within the scope or budget of previous projects or that became apparent during field tests. Our successful completion of the tasks outlined in this project has increased the reliability, efficiency, and scalability of the CCC process and we are better prepared for pilot-scale testing. The first phase of this project improved key areas of the process through iterative design and experiment, culminating with recommendations for improvements to the existing skid-scale system developed under non-federal funding. The second phase of this project implemented the improved unit operations into the Cryogenic Carbon Capture External Cooling Loop (CCC ECL™) skid and field tests the improved system at a coal-fired power plant. The specific areas of work in this project are: Budget Period 1: 1) Selection of the most energy-efficient drying system for ambient-pressure flue gas. Sustainable Energy Solutions, LLC (SES) has successfully demonstrated a dryer that removes bulk water using a low-temperature brine to remove about 99% of the water followed by a mol sieve 3A desiccant dryer to remove the remaining 1% water; 2) Selection and demonstration of efficient solution to fouling due to dissolved CO 2 . SES has tested several commercial heat exchangers that purport to be able to handle fouling issues similar to those experienced in the contact liquid chiller. Replicated tests using the CCC ECL™ skid and dimpled brazed plate heat exchangers demonstrate that quick throttling of refrigerant combined with a burst of clean gas mitigate the fouling caused by CO 2 solubility in contact liquid with only minor increases in parasitic load. SES models indicate that parasitic load would increase by approximately 0.0125 GJ/tonne, an order of magnitude less than what was determined to be the maximum allowable additional parasitic load caused by this system; 3) Selection and demonstration of efficient and scalable solid–liquid separation system. The screw press technology met or exceeded the 70% solids loading benchmark during several test runs exceeding 24 hours on the CCC ECL™ skid. The average solids loading during the entire 50-hour run was 67%. The energy demand for this system is less than 0.1 GJ e /tonne of CO 2 processed; 4) Optimize design and demonstration of patented desublimating heat exchangers. We designed and built a hybrid spray tower that was tested over many hundreds of hours and a 50-hour continuous test run was completed capturing over 0.5 tonne CO 2 /day at >90% capture; (5) Plan for safe dilution of oxygen-depleted, cleaned flue-gas stream. The AERSCREEN simulator developed by the EPA modeled the dispersion of oxygen-depleted flue gas from the CCC process at a commercial plant. The results indicate that this plan effectively mitigates the flue gas hazards; (6) Simulation of and experimental work related to multi-pollutant capture. SES programmed an upgrade to its solid/vapor/liquid equilibrium (SVLE) algorithm. This enables simultaneous modeling of multiple pollutants (i.e., CO 2 , SO x , NO x , Hg, HCl). Budget Period 2; (7) Modify the CCC ECL™ skid for field testing and complete shakedown testing. The plans for modifying the CCC ECL™ skid were finalized and put into place. Shakedown testing of the updated CCC ECL™ skid occurred at SES using closed-loop mode (i.e., using a synthetic flue gas consisting of only N 2 and CO 2 ) and at the Hunter Power Plant using flue gas from the coal-fired boiler. Shakedown testing took longer than expected due to delays in receiving equipment and unexpected equipment performance in the field; (8) Operate the CCC ECL™ skid in the field. Longer testing of the CCC ECL™ skid occurred at the Hunter Power Plant. Multiple tests exceeding 35 hours were completed, with a total of over 600 hours of CO 2 capture completed using flue gas at the Hunter Power Plant with an average CO 2 capture rate of over 91% during those hours. Extensive notes and documentation were acquired informing improved methods for controls, startup, operation, and shut down; (9) Determine figures of merit and quantify process improvement. SES defined figures of merit for unit operation performance and overall CCC ECL™ process performance. All figures of merit were achieved or surpassed, except for 500 continuous hours of demonstration at the Hunter Power Plant; (10) Complete an Environmental Health and Safety Risk assessment by a third party. Tri-State completed an Environmental Health and Safety Risk assessment; (11) Update techno-economic analysis with third-party validation. The techno-economic analysis has been completed. It confirms the potential large reduction in energy and cost of the CCC process compared with leading alternatives and that the estimates and estimation techniques are reliable.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
NASA NTRS1991

Computation of atmospheric cooling rates by exact and approximate methods

Infrared fluxes and cooling rates for several standard model atmospheres, with and without water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone, have been calculated using a line-by-line method at 0.01/cm resolution. The sensitivity of the results to the vertical integration scheme and to the model for water vapor continuum absorption is shown. Comparison with similar calculations performed at NOAA/GFDL shows agreement to within 0.5 W/sq m in fluxes at various levels and 0.05 K/d in cooling rates. Comparison with a fast, parameterized radiation code used in climate models reveals a worst case difference, when all gases are included, of 3.7 W/sq m in flux; cooling rate differences are 0.1 K/d or less when integrated over a substantial layer with point differences as large as 0.3 K/d.

Ridgway, William L.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Numerical study to predict the effect of surface roughness on the thermal and hydraulic performance of additively manufactured heat exchangers

Heat exchangers are used in many industries to transfer thermal energy between two or more objects with an associated thermal and hydraulic performance indicated by thermal effectiveness and pressure drop respectively. Many investigations have aimed to enhance the thermal effectiveness of heat exchangers by introducing turbulent flow inducers that increase the heat transfer rate at the expense of increasing pressure drop. Flow inducers like surface roughness can be controlled with advanced manufacturing methods like additive manufacturing for heat exchanger production. Selecting and manufacturing an optimal surface roughness for heat exchangers requires a more comprehensive approach that accounts for the surface roughness effect on the thermal and hydraulic performance of a sample. Since fabricating samples with additive manufacturing to a desired surface roughness can be an extensive experimental process, this study will fundamentally investigate the effect of surface roughness on the thermal and velocity boundary layers for various surface roughness profiles with physics-based computational modeling. To accurately model the surface roughness effect on thermohydraulic performance, correlations like roughness ratio, friction factor, and Nusselt number are investigated. This study expects to indicate correlations for different flow regimes which can successfully predict the effect of surface roughness on thermohydraulic performance. Results generated from modeling surface roughness effect with unique correlations are then compared to experimental data obtained from literature for validation. The results of this study will provide insight to understand the thermal fluid physics associated with surface roughness and design guidelines for heat exchangers produced with additive manufacturing.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS1991

A comparison of microwave techniques for measuring rainfall

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate within a common framework a large number of techniques for nearly instantaneous microwave measurements of rainfall and to determine the range of rainfall rates best suited to the various techniques and estimators. The physical basis of a technique as transformed by measurement imperfections of real instruments determines the ultimate performance capability of any microwave rain estimator. While many of the defects of the measurement process apply to all techniques, the physics behind each estimator differs. A method is presented for objectively evaluating the physical bases of the techniques and for quantifying estimator performance for perfect instruments. These results are then tempered by standard measurement errors to yield more realistic results. Analysis demonstrates that, in general, the minimization of rainfall estimate errors over a wide range of rainfall rates requires the simultaneous application of more than one microwave rainfall measurement technique.

Jameson, A. R.↗
NASA NTRS1981

Effects of noise frequency on performance and annoyance for women and men

Effects of noise frequencies on both performance on a complex psychomotor task and annoyance were investigated for men (n = 30) and women (n = 30). Each subject performed a complex psychomotor task for 50 min in the presence of low-frequency noise, high-frequency noise, or ambient noise. Women and men learned the task at different rates. Little effect of noise was shown. Annoyance ratings were subsequently obtained from each subject for noises of various frequencies by the method of magnitude estimation. High-frequency noises were more annoying than low-frequency noises regardless of sex and immediate prior exposure to noise. Sex differences in annoyance did not occur. No direct relationship between learning to perform a complex task while exposed to noise and annoyance by that noise was demonstrated.

Key, K. F.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Effect of Surface Nonequilibrium Thermochemistry in Simulation of Carbon Based Ablators

This study demonstrates that coupling of a material thermal response code and a flow solver using finite-rate gas/surface interaction model provides time-accurate solutions for multidimensional ablation of carbon based charring ablators. The material thermal response code used in this study is the Two-dimensional Implicit Thermal Response and Ablation Program (TITAN), which predicts charring material thermal response and shape change on hypersonic space vehicles. Its governing equations include total energy balance, pyrolysis gas momentum conservation, and a three-component decomposition model. The flow code solves the reacting Navier-Stokes equations using Data Parallel Line Relaxation (DPLR) method. Loose coupling between material response and flow codes is performed by solving the surface mass balance in DPLR and the surface energy balance in TITAN. Thus, the material surface recession is predicted by finite-rate gas/surface interaction boundary conditions implemented in DPLR, and the surface temperature and pyrolysis gas injection rate are computed in TITAN. Two sets of gas/surface interaction chemistry between air and carbon surface developed by Park and Zhluktov, respectively, are studied. Coupled fluid-material response analyses of stagnation tests conducted in NASA Ames Research Center arc-jet facilities are considered. The ablating material used in these arc-jet tests was a Phenolic Impregnated Carbon Ablator (PICA). Computational predictions of in-depth material thermal response and surface recession are compared with the experimental measurements for stagnation cold wall heat flux ranging from 107 to 1100 Watts per square centimeter.

Chen, Yih-Kang↗
NASA NTRS1980

Solar panel thermal cycling testing by solar simulation and infrared radiation methods

For the solar panels of the European Space Agency (ESA) satellites OTS/MAROTS and ECS/MARECS the thermal cycling tests were performed by using solar simulation methods. The performance data of two different solar simulators used and the thermal test results are described. The solar simulation thermal cycling tests for the ECS/MARECS solar panels were carried out with the aid of a rotatable multipanel test rig by which simultaneous testing of three solar panels was possible. As an alternative thermal test method, the capability of an infrared radiation method was studied and infrared simulation tests for the ultralight panel and the INTELSAT 5 solar panels were performed. The setup and the characteristics of the infrared radiation unit using a quartz lamp array of approx. 15 sq and LN2-cooled shutter and the thermal test results are presented. The irradiation uniformity, the solar panel temperature distribution, temperature changing rates for both test methods are compared. Results indicate the infrared simulation is an effective solar panel thermal testing method.

Nuss, H. E.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Boosting the Low-Temperature Performance of Graphite Anodes by Creating an Electrochemically Active Interface

Graphite is the major anode material used in commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the sluggish ion-transfer kinetics associated with graphite anodes significantly restrict the operation of LIBs over a wide temperature. This is primarily due to their low reversible capacity and the substantial overpotential exhibited under low-temperature conditions. To address this limitation, we demonstrate herein an approach that involves grafting an electrochemically active lithium benzenesulfonate layer onto a graphite surface through a typical reduction reaction of diazonium cations, followed by ion exchange process. This surface modification reduces the charge transfer resistance of graphite anodes, leading to an excellent reversible capacity of ~150 mAh g –1 at low-temperatures (-20 °C, 0.1C). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy indicates that both desolvation of the lithium ions outside the graphite, and lithium diffusion within the solid electrolyte interphase and graphite lattice are two crucial rate-limiting steps during the Li (de)lithiation, with the latter dominating during the low-temperature operation. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate a facile method for enhancing the low-temperature performance of graphite through surface modification and provide valuable insights into fundamental understandings that can guide the future design of better -low-temperature graphite anodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Rapid dissolution without elemental fractionation by laser driven hydrothermal processing

Traditional dissolution of geologic samples often requires a significant time investment. Here, we present an alternative method for the dissolution of geologic materials using laser-driven hydrothermal processing (LDHP). LDHP uses laser energy directed onto a submerged sample, which increases the temperature and pressure at the liquid–sample interface and drives the hydrothermal dissolution coupled with photomechanical spallation, an ablative process. This uses focused 527 nm laser energy at 40 W average power, 1 kHz pulse repetition rate, and 115 ns pulse duration. Importantly, when LDHP is performed on basalt geostandards (BCR-2 and BHVO-2) using the conditions outlined, we show that LDHP does not produce significant elemental fractionation and, thus, can be considered an alternative processing method to traditional mechanical crushing and acid digestion. Additionally, it is possible using LDHP to utilize the spatially confined beam to target and selectively isolate individual phases in a rock, potentially alleviating the need for mechanical separation of inclusions that are difficult to physically isolate. Furthermore, using this outlined method of LDHP, we demonstrate full dissolution of 120 mg of obsidian in 85 minu, meaning that LDHP is a potentially very useful method when sample processing is time sensitive.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2016

Non-Condon equilibrium Fermi’s golden rule electronic transition rate constants via the linearized semiclassical method

In this paper, we test the accuracy of the linearized semiclassical (LSC) expression for the equilibrium Fermi’s golden rule rate constant for electronic transitions in the presence of non-Condon effects. We do so by performing a comparison with the exact quantum-mechanical result for a model where the donor and acceptor potential energy surfaces are parabolic and identical except for shifts in the equilibrium energy and geometry, and the coupling between them is linear in the nuclear coordinates. Since non-Condon effects may or may not give rise to conical intersections, both possibilities are examined by considering: (1) A modified Garg-Onuchic-Ambegaokar model for charge transfer in the condensed phase, where the donor-acceptor coupling is linear in the primary mode coordinate, and for which non-Condon effects do not give rise to a conical intersection; (2) the linear vibronic coupling model for electronic transitions in gas phase molecules, where non-Condon effects give rise to conical intersections. We also present a comprehensive comparison between the linearized semiclassical expression and a progression of more approximate expressions. The comparison is performed over a wide range of frictions and temperatures for model (1) and over a wide range of temperatures for model (2). The linearized semiclassical method is found to reproduce the exact quantum-mechanical result remarkably well for both models over the entire range of parameters under consideration. In contrast, more approximate expressions are observed to deviate considerably from the exact result in some regions of parameter space.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRS2001

Rotary Wing Flight Test Methods Used for the Evaluation of Night Vision Devices

A number of rotary wing flight tests have been conducted by the Army Aeroflightdynamics Directorate in cooperation with NASA which involved the use of night vision devices and simulated devices. The test set up and data analysis have been taken from two perspectives. Some of the flight tests were structured to look at aircraft handling qualities when the pilot's image quality was reduced from normal daylight levels. In this case, aircraft flight path information was given to the pilot as one input into the Handling Qualities Ratings. Other flight tests were structured to look at pilot and workload directly. In this second case, aircraft position was accurately measured and used as pilot performance data. This paper provides an overview of the test methods used, lessons learned, and recommendations for future tam of night vision devices.

Haworth, Loran↗
DOE OSTI2019

Outage probability and average BER estimation of FSO system employing wavelength diversity

Free space optical (FSO) communication has gained significant attention among researchers for high bandwidth and secured data transfer applications. However, its performance is limited by the local atmospheric conditions. This paper focusses on an FSO system employing a diversity method to compensate signal loss occurred due to atmospheric turbulence conditions varying from moderate to strong. We derive a closed-form expression for two important parameters, viz.: average bit error rate (BER) and outage probability over gamma–gamma distribution channel. The numerical results for different combining schemes are presented in this paper. Enhancement in reliability and performance of FSO communication system with wavelength diversity is investigated. Effect of different wavelengths 850 nm, 1310 nm and 1550 nm on average BER is analysed and minimum BER is achieved for optimal combining at 1550 nm at diversity order R=3.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2019

Graphene Wrapped FeSe 2 Nano–Microspheres with High Pseudocapacitive Contribution for Enhanced Na–Ion Storage

Pseudocapacitance is a Faradaic process that involves surface or near surface redox reactions. Increasing the pseudocapacitive contribution is one of the most effective means to improve the rate performance of electrode materials. In this study, graphene oxide is used as a template to in situ synthesize burr globule–like FeSe 2 /graphene hybrid (B–FeSe 2 /G) using a facile one–step hydrothermal method. Structural characterization demonstrates that graphene layers not only wrap the surfaces of FeSe 2 particles, but also stretch into the interior of these particles, as a result of which the unique nano–microsphere structure is successfully established. When serving as anode material for Na–ion batteries, B–FeSe 2 /G hybrid displays high electrochemical performance in the voltage range of 0.5–2.9 V. The B–FeSe 2 /G hybrid has high reversible capacity of 521.6 mAh·g –1 at 1.0 A g –1 . Meanwhile, after 400 cycles, high discharge capacity of 496.3 mAh g –1 is obtained at a rate of 2.5 A g –1 , with a high columbic efficiency of 96.6% and less than 1.0% loss of discharge capacity. Even at the ultrahigh rate of 10 A g –1 , a specific capacity of 316.8 mAh g –1 can be achieved. Furthermore, kinetic analyses reveal that the excellent performance of the B–FeSe 2 /G hybrid is largely attributed to the high pseudocapacitive contribution induced by the special nano–micro structure.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Metal nano-grids for transparent conduction in solar cells

A general procedure for predicting metal grid performance in solar cells was developed. Unlike transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) or other homogeneous films, metal grids induce more resistance in the neighbor layer. The resulting balance of transmittance, neighbor and grid resistance was explored in light of cheap lithography advances that have enabled metal nano-grid (MNG) fabrication. The patterned MNGs have junction resistances and degradation rates that are more favorable than solution-synthesized metal nanowires. Neighbor series resistance was simulated by the finite element method, although a simpler analytical model was sufficient in most cases. Finite-difference frequency-domain transmittance simulations were performed for MNGs with minimum wire width (w) of 50 nm, but deviations from aperture transmittance were small in magnitude. Depending on the process, MNGs can exhibit increased series resistance as w is decreased. However, numerous experimental reports have already achieved transmittance-MNG sheet resistance trade-offs comparable to TCOs. The transmittance, neighbor and MNG series resistances were used to parameterize a grid fill factor for a solar cell. In conclusion, this new figure of merit was used to demonstrate that although MNGs have only been employed in low efficiency solar cells, substantial gains in performance are predicted for decreased w in all high efficiency absorber technologies.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Quantum-inspired method for solving the Vlasov-Poisson equations

Kinetic simulations of collisionless (or weakly collisional) plasmas using the Vlasov equation are often infeasible due to high-resolution requirements and the exponential scaling of computational cost with respect to dimension. Recently, it has been proposed that matrix product state (MPS) methods, a quantum-inspired but classical algorithm, can be used to solve partial differential equations with exponential speed-up, provided that the solution can be compressed and efficiently represented as a MPS within some tolerable error threshold. Here, in this work, we explore the practicality of MPS methods for solving the Vlasov-Poisson equations for systems with one coordinate in space and one coordinate in velocity, and find that important features of linear and nonlinear dynamics, such as damping or growth rates and saturation amplitudes, can be captured while compressing the solution significantly. Furthermore, by comparing the performance of different mappings of the distribution functions onto the MPS, we develop an intuition of the MPS representation and its behavior in the context of solving the Vlasov-Poisson equations, which will be useful for extending these methods to higher-dimensional problems.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2016

Effects of nitrogen ion implantation time on tungsten films deposited by DC magnetron sputtering on AISI 410 martensitic stainless steel

Nitrogen ion implantation time on tungsten thin film deposited on surface of AISI 410 steel has been performed. Tungsten thin film produced by dc magnetron sputtering method was deposited on AISI 410 martensitic stainless steel substrates, and then the nitrogen ions were implanted on tungsten thin film. The objective of this research is to investigate the effects of implantation deposition time on surface roughness, microhardness, specific wear and corrosion rate of nitrogen implanted on tungsten film. Magnetron sputtering process was performed by using plasma gas of argon (Ar) to bombardier tungsten target (W) in a vacuum chamber with a pressure of 7.6 x 10{sup −2} torr, a voltage of 300 V, a sputter current of 80 mA for sputtered time of 10 minutes. Nitrogen implantation on tungsten film was done with an initial pressure of 3x10{sup −6} mbar, a fluence of 2 x 10{sup 17} ions/cm{sup 2}, an energy of 100 keV and implantation deposition times of 0, 20, 30 and 40 minutes. The surface roughness, microhardness, specific wear and corrosion rate of the films were evaluated by surfcorder test, Vickers microhardness test, wear test and potentiostat (galvanostat) test respectively. The results show that the nitrogen ions implanted deposition time on tungsten film can modify the surface roughness, microhardness, specific wear and corrosion rate. The minimum surface roughness, specific wear and corrosion rate can be obtained for implantation time of 20 minutes and the maximum microhardness of the film is 329 VHN (Vickers Hardness Number) for implantation time of 30 minutes. The specific wear and corrosion rate of the film depend directly on the surface roughness.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Performance Risk Model Validation with Operationally Relevant Tasks

Human Research Program aims to develop methods to support astronauts’ health and productivity during spaceflight. The Crew Health and Performance Probabilistic Risk Assessment (CHP-PRA) team uses powerful computational methods to predict mission risk in both domains: medical and performance. Here, we show how CHP-PRA uses the Performance Risk Model (PRisM) to quantify the performance risk and show an application of the model on operationally relevant tasks. There are various metrics adopted across performance researchers that PRisM can accommodate. For data analysis, interpretation, and integration, we use a method of unifying data from multiple sources by converting each to a single metric. We consult subject matter experts prior to integrating the converted data into PRisM. The method we use is inspired by the Cooper-Harper rating scale [1]. Using this unified metric, we can easily combine data from various tests and lab groups. We explain our conversion method in detail and show how it pertains to the process of testing and validation of PRisM on operational tasks. We conducted an initial validation in collaboration with the Behavioral Health and Performance (BHP) lab. We test PRisM using data on their operationally relevant task ROBoT-r, a track-and-capture task for grappling incoming resupply vehicles [2]. Several other labs at NASA Johnson Space Center worked together to design 7 Functional Task Tests (FTTs) in pursuit of simulating the tasks required after landing on a planetary surface and after return to Earth [3]. Here we use the results from both ROBoT-r and the 7 FTTs and compare their experiment data to PRisM’s computational output to demonstrate how PRisM can support operations by predicting crew performance on future missions.

performance modeling↗