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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 775 records · Page 43
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2013

Diffusion Barrier Properties of Nitride-Based Coatings on Fuel Cladding

In this work titanium nitride (TiN) and zirconium nitride (ZrN) coatings are proposed as diffusion barriers between stainless steel nuclear fuel cladding and lanthanide fission products. TiN and ZrN have been coated as barrier materials between pure Fe and Ce, i.e. diffusion couples of Fe/TiN/Ce and Fe/ZrN/Ce, annealed up to a temperature of 600 degrees C, and compared to the diffusion behavior of uncoated Fe/Ce. Backscattered electron images and electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy measurements confirm that, with a 500 nm TiN or ZrN layer, no obvious diffusion is observed between Fe and Ce. Basic diffusion characteristics of the Fe/Ce couple have also been measured and compared with the TiN and ZrN coated ones. The results strongly advocate that TiN and ZrN coatings provide reliable diffusion barrier characteristics against Ce and possibly other lanthanide fission products.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Persistent compositions of non-stoichiometric compounds with low bulk diffusivity: A theory and application to Nb3Sn superconductors

Non-stoichiometric compounds may develop a composition gradient when they are formed by reactive diffusional processes. This paper reports an interesting phenomenon that in compounds with low bulk diffusivities, which rely mainly on grain boundary diffusion for their growth, the final bulk compositions may be far from equilibrium, with a very low bulk diffusivity leading to fixed (persistent) compositions – one such example is Nb 3 Sn, a superconductor. We investigated the microchemistry at the reactive interface using atom probe tomography to clarify the diffusion reaction mechanism for this low-bulk-diffusivity case and thus propose a theory for what determines the compound composition, using Nb 3 Sn as an example for concreteness. Using certain approximations, we derive an explicit analytical equation that illustrates what factors determine its composition profile. We compare our model with the known facts of Nb 3 Sn and see good agreement. In particular, this model predicts that internal oxidation may lead to higher Sn contents than conventional, non-oxidized Nb 3 Sn. Our measurements show that this is indeed true, and that the internally-oxidized Nb 3 Sn also has higher upper critical fields, achieving up to 28.2 T at 4.2 K. We discuss the general applicability of this model to non-stoichiometric compounds with low bulk diffusivity, and propose it as a tool to help in the design and processing of such materials for compositional control.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

An exact and efficient first passage time algorithm for reaction–diffusion processes on a 2D-lattice

We present an exact and efficient algorithm for reaction–diffusion–nucleation processes on a 2D-lattice. The algorithm makes use of first passage time (FPT) to replace the computationally intensive simulation of diffusion hops in KMC by larger jumps when particles are far away from step-edges or other particles. Our approach computes exact probability distributions of jump times and target locations in a closed-form formula, based on the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the corresponding 1D transition matrix, maintaining atomic-scale resolution of resulting shapes of deposit islands. We have applied our method to three different test cases of electrodeposition: pure diffusional aggregation for large ranges of diffusivity rates and for simulation domain sizes of up to 4096×4096 sites, the effect of diffusivity on island shapes and sizes in combination with a KMC edge diffusion, and the calculation of an exclusion zone in front of a step-edge, confirming statistical equivalence to standard KMC simulations. The algorithm achieves significant speedup compared to standard KMC for cases where particles diffuse over long distances before nucleating with other particles or being captured by larger islands.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2015

An integration factor method for stochastic and stiff reaction–diffusion systems

Stochastic effects are often present in the biochemical systems involving reactions and diffusions. When the reactions are stiff, existing numerical methods for stochastic reaction diffusion equations require either very small time steps for any explicit schemes or solving large nonlinear systems at each time step for the implicit schemes. Here we present a class of semi-implicit integration factor methods that treat the diffusion term exactly and reaction implicitly for a system of stochastic reaction–diffusion equations. Our linear stability analysis shows the advantage of such methods for both small and large amplitudes of noise. Direct use of the method to solving several linear and nonlinear stochastic reaction–diffusion equations demonstrates good accuracy, efficiency, and stability properties. This new class of methods, which are easy to implement, will have broader applications in solving stochastic reaction–diffusion equations arising from models in biology and physical sciences.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2016

Post-processing interstitialcy diffusion from molecular dynamics simulations

An algorithm to rigorously trace the interstitialcy diffusion trajectory in crystals is developed. The algorithm incorporates unsupervised learning and graph optimization which obviate the need to input extra domain specific information depending on crystal or temperature of the simulation. The algorithm is implemented in a flexible framework as a post-processor to molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We describe in detail the reduction of interstitialcy diffusion into known computational problems of unsupervised clustering and graph optimization. We also discuss the steps, computational efficiency and key components of the algorithm. Using the algorithm, thermal interstitialcy diffusion from low to near-melting point temperatures is studied. We encapsulate the algorithms in a modular framework with functionality to calculate diffusion coefficients, migration energies and other trajectory properties. The study validates the algorithm by establishing the conformity of output parameters with experimental values and provides detailed insights for the interstitialcy diffusion mechanism. The algorithm along with the help of supporting visualizations and analysis gives convincing details and a new approach to quantifying diffusion jumps, jump-lengths, time between jumps and to identify interstitials from lattice atoms. -- Graphical abstract:.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2019

Diffusion behaviors between metallic fuel alloys with Pd addition and Fe

Fission product lanthanides (Lns) in metallic fuel is the primary cause of fuel-cladding chemical interaction (FCCI). Palladium (Pd) is being explored as a potential additive to reduce or mitigate FCCI by forming stable Pd-Ln compounds. The current study is an investigation of diffusion behaviors between UZrPd, UZrPdLn, UPuZrPd, and UPuZrPdLn alloys (Ln = 53Nd-25Ce-16Pr-6La wt. %) and iron (Fe). Diffusion couple tests were performed followed by microstructural analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It is found that the diffusion of Fe into the fuel is reduced by PdZr2 precipitates randomly dispersed throughout the fuel matrix. Ln-Pd compounds form in UZrPdLn alloys, and (Ln,Pu)Pd forms in the UPuZrPdLn alloy. In both diffusion couples with Ln, small amounts of Lns are diffusing into the Fe. This could be due to small amounts of dissolved Lns in the precipitates, or could be due to the Ln-Pd compounds decomposing. In either case, diffusion caused by Lns is greatly reduced.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Radiation driven diffusion in γU-Mo

A monolithic fuel design based on a U-Mo alloy has been selected as the fuel type for conversion of the United States High-Performance Research Reactors (HPRRs). A critical phenomenon of interest with U-Mo monolithic fuel is the large amount of swelling that takes place during operation, particularly at high fission densities. The accurate prediction of fuel evolution under irradiation requires implementation of correct thermodynamic and kinetic properties into mesoscale and continuum level fuel performance modeling codes. One such property where there exists incomplete data is the diffusion of relevant species under irradiation. Fuel performance swelling predictions rely on an accurate representation of diffusion in order to determine the rate of fission gas swelling and the local microstructural evolution. In this work, we present molecular dynamics simulations of the radiation driven diffusion of U, Mo and Xe in U-Mo nuclear fuels. Diffusion coefficients for each species are determined over a range of temperatures and compositions. In this work, updated diffusion coefficients are presented that are applicable under irradiation that incorporate both intrinsic and radiation driven diffusion.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Thermal diffusivity of irradiated tungsten and tungsten-rhenium alloys

The Japan-US PHENIX project irradiated tungsten materials in the RB-19J capsule experiment in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR). A gadolinium (Gd) shielding was used to absorb the thermal neutrons and reduce rhenium and osmium generation in tungsten. Pure tungsten and K-doped W-3% Re samples were irradiated at 532 – 662 °C to dose of 0.21-0.46 dpa, with the grain orientation perpendicular or parallel to the disk surface. Thermal diffusivity measurements were performed from 100 °C to 500 °C. Furthermore, additional measurements followed after annealing up to 900 °C. Irradiated pure tungsten specimens showed similar thermal diffusivity results compared with an unirradiated W-1% Re specimen in another study. The transmutation amount of Re was calculated to be about 0.52% for those specimens that showed good agreement with this study. Specimens irradiated in this study to different doses presented almost the same thermal diffusivity. Annealing up to 800 °C resulted in no recovery of thermal diffusivity. These results show that the contribution of crystalline defects to degradation of thermal diffusivity is quite limited. In addition, the thermal diffusivity of the irradiated specimens was getting close to that of the unirradiated specimens at elevated temperature.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Modeling fission product diffusion in TRISO fuel particles with BISON

Diffusion of fission products in intact TRISO particles depends on particle geometry, fission product source rates, time, temperature, and temperature-dependent diffusion coefficients. Simulating this diffusion process requires models for source rates and diffusion coefficients, plus computation of the temperature field if not prescribed. In addition, simulation quality depends on discretization of the geometry, appropriate time stepping, and the accuracy of the solution method. In this paper, we explore the simulation of fission product diffusion in TRISO fuel particles using the finite element method via the fuel performance code Bison. Recent material model development has occurred in Bison for each material present in tri-structural isotropic (TRISO) fuel particles: the buffer, inner pyrolytic carbon, silicon carbide, and outer pyrolytic carbon layers, as well as the fuel kernel. Also, new mesh generation and fission product release fraction capabilities have been added. Diffusion capabilities are shown to converge to the correct solution via formal verification tests. A large number of code benchmarking problems are also given, with good results, showing that Bison’s computed release fractions closely match those of other software tools. Finally, a significant validation effort is detailed in which fission product release, measured as part of the AGR-1 capsule experiments, is compared to Bison outputs. Bison outputs compare very well to the experimental data and to PARFUME results.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Europium diffusion in IG-110 nuclear graphite

Europium diffusion in graphite has been recognized to be of interest in high-temperature gas reactor safety analysis, particularly as an indicator of strontium diffusion. However, no measurements of europium diffusion coefficients have been reported in the literature. In this work, the effective diffusion coefficient of europium was measured using a time-release method. Natural europium was loaded into pre-milled unirradiated IG-110 graphite spheres using a pressurized acid digestion vessel. The time-release experiments were performed in the temperature range 1823 K – 1973 K using a SiC diffusion cell connected to an inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) via a He gas line. Finally, the results of this work are: D Eu, IG-110 = (1.5 x 10 -3 m 2 /s) exp $(\frac{-2.87\mathrm{x}10^{5} J/mol}{RT})$ This effective diffusion coefficient can be used to aid in predictive modelling of europium transport in HTGRs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of Mg and Ni impurities on tritium diffusion in lithium ceramics through cluster dynamics simulations

This study investigates the impact of Mg and Ni doping on tritium diffusion in LiAlO 2 and LiAl 5 O 8 ceramics, that are used in tritium-producing burnable absorber rods (TPBARs). Utilizing Centipede simulations across a broad temperature range (500 K to 1250 K), we explore the interplay between defect dynamics, cluster formation, and tritium mobility. In LiAlO 2 , Mg doping significantly enhances tritium diffusivity by increasing tritium interstitial concentrations and diffusion coefficients of key species, thereby doubling the overall tritium diffusivity. Ni doping, while shifting the dominant defect to Li vacancies, maintains high tritium mobility due to the low binding energy of Li vacancy-tritium complexes, which ensures effective tritium migration. In LiAl 5 O 8 , Mg and Ni doping results in a slight reduction in the diffusion coefficients of key species, yet the dramatic increase in tritium interstitial concentrations compensates, leading to a net small increase in tritium diffusivity. In conclusion, the findings highlight the critical role of defects in tritium transport and the effect of Mg and Ni defects on the performance of these ceramics in demanding nuclear environments.

Cluster dynamics↗
DOE OSTI2025

First-principles investigation of cerium and neodymium diffusion in BCC chromium and vanadium via vacancy-mediated transport

Lanthanide transport plays a crucial role in the performance and longevity of metallic nuclear fuels. This study examines the diffusion behavior of Ce and Nd—two major fission products—in body-centered cubic (BCC) Cr and V, which are potential liner or coating materials for mitigating fuel-cladding chemical interactions (FCCI). Using density functional theory (DFT) calculations and self-consistent mean-field (SCMF) analysis, the vacancy-mediated diffusion coefficients are evaluated. Our findings reveal that Ce and Nd act as oversized solutes and are strongly bound to vacancies in BCC Cr and V, with diffusivities in Cr significantly lower than in V and in hexagonal closed-packed (HCP) Zr, as investigated in our previous work. The activation energies for Ce and Nd diffusion are 3.39 and 3.32 eV, respectively, in BCC Cr, and 2.56 and 2.33 eV, respectively, in BCC V. Analysis of vacancy drag and partial diffusion coefficient ratios indicates a strong tendency for lanthanide enrichment at vacancy sinks in BCC Cr, and to a lesser extent in BCC V, with this effect persisting up to the melting point in Cr and remaining substantial for Nd in V at high temperatures. Under irradiation, the increase in vacancy concentration is expected to enhance lanthanide transport, potentially accelerating interactions at liner-cladding interfaces. Although BCC Cr exhibits relatively low lanthanide diffusivities under equilibrium conditions, the expected segregation tendencies under irradiation suggest that Zr liners may be a more favorable option. Further investigations using rate theory, cluster dynamics, and phase-field modeling are required to quantitatively assess the performance of these materials in reactor environments.

36 - MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Structure and ionic conductivity of well-aligned polycrystalline sodium titanogallate grown by reactive diffusion

We prepared the b-axis-oriented polycrystalline Na{sub 0.85}Ti{sub 0.51}Ga{sub 4.37}O{sub 8} (NTGO) embedded in Ga{sub 2}O{sub 3}-doped Na{sub 2}Ti{sub 4}O{sub 9} matrix using the reactive diffusion technique. When the sandwich-type Ga{sub 2}TiO{sub 5}/NaGaO{sub 2}/Ga{sub 2}TiO{sub 5} diffusion couple was heated at 1323 K for 24 h, the NTGO polycrystal was readily formed in the presence of a liquid phase. The resulting polycrystalline material was characterized by X-ray diffractometry, electron microscopy and impedance spectroscopy. We mechanically processed the annealed diffusion couple and obtained the thin-plate electrolyte consisting mostly of the grain-aligned NTGO polycrystal. The ionic conductivity (σ) of the electrolyte along the common b-axis direction steadily increased from 1.3×10{sup −4} to 7.3×10{sup −3} S/cm as the temperature increased from 573 to 1073 K. There was a slope change at ca. 792 K for the Arrhenius plot of σ; the activation energies were 0.39 eV above this temperature and 0.57 eV below it. The NTGO showed the crystal structure (space group C2/m) with substantial positional disordering of one of the two Ga sites. The Na{sup +} ions occupied ca. 43% of the Wyckoff position 4i site, the deficiency of which would contribute to the relatively high ionic conductivity along the b-axis. The reactive diffusion could be widely applicable as the novel technique to the preparation of grain-aligned ceramics of multi-component systems. - Graphical abstract: We have prepared the b-axis-oriented Na{sub 0.85}Ti{sub 0.51}Ga{sub 4.37}O{sub 8} polycrystal embedded in Ga{sub 2}O{sub 3}-doped Na{sub 2}Ti{sub 4}O{sub 9} matrix by the heat treatment of sandwich-type diffusion couple of Ga{sub 2}TiO{sub 5}/NaGaO{sub 2}/Ga{sub 2}TiO{sub 5}. The resulting Na{sub 0.85}Ti{sub 0.51}Ga{sub 4.37}O{sub 8} electrolyte showed the ionic conductivity ranging from 1.3×10{sup −4} S/cm at 573 K to 7.3×10{sup −3} S/cm at 1073 K. - Highlights: • The b-axis-oriented polycrystalline Na{sub 0.85}Ti{sub 0.51}Ga{sub 4.37}O{sub 8} is successfully prepared. • Crystal structure of Na{sub 0.85}Ti{sub 0.51}Ga{sub 4.37}O{sub 8} is determined by single-crystal XRD. • The polycrystal shows relatively high Na{sup +} ion conductivity along the common b-axis. • Reactive diffusion is successfully used for the preparation of grain-aligned ceramics.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Tensile behavior of diffusion bonded AA6061 - AA6061 with variation in cooling method

Hot isostatically pressed AA6061 cladding is an important structural component of the high performance, Zr-laminated U-10Mo monolithic fuel system for the application in research and test reactors. In this study, the mechanical behavior of two diffusion bonded aluminum alloy, AA6061, was examined using tensile testing. Solid-to-solid diffusion bonding between two pieces of AA6061 was performed by isothermal annealing at 560 °C for 1.5 h, and diffusion couples were subsequently cooled via three different cooling methods: furnace cooling, air cooling, and water quenching. Dog-bone shaped tensile specimens, with 10 mm in gauge length (with diffusion bonded interface in the middle), and 1.5 × 1.5 mm 2 gauge cross-sections, were fabricated from the diffusion bonded AA6061 by electro-discharge machining. Yield strength (% EL at failure) of furnace cooled, air cooled and water quenched tensile specimens determined was 82 ~ 89 MPa (10 ~ 30%), 112 ~ 116 MPa (10 ~ 14%), and 149 ~ 164 MPa (10 ~ 17%), respectively. This variation in mechanical behavior was examined with cooling-rate dependent, concentrated precipitation of Mg 2 Si at the diffusion bonded interface, with due respect for mechanical properties of the AA6061 alloy that inherently vary as a function of cooling rate from 560 °C. Finite element analysis using ABAQUS was employed to augment experimental findings with the appropriate microstructural constituents and alloy properties. Results suggest that the strength is dominated by matrix/bulk properties of AA6061, while ductility is strongly influenced by the cooling method dependent presence of Mg 2 Si precipitates at the interface.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Imaging Fluorescence-Correlation Spectroscopy for Measuring Fast Surface Diffusion at Liquid/Solid Interfaces

The development of techniques to probe interfacial molecular transport is important for understanding and optimizing surface-based analytical methods including surface-enhanced spectroscopies, biological assays, and chemical separations. Single-molecule-fluorescence imaging and tracking has been used to measure lateral diffusion rates of fluorescent molecules at surfaces, but the technique is limited to the study of slower diffusion, where molecules must remain relatively stationary during acquisition of an image in order to build up sufficient intensity in a spot to detect and localize the molecule. Although faster time resolution can be achieved by fluorescence-correlation spectroscopy (FCS), where intensity fluctuations in a small spot are related to the motions of molecules on the surface, long-lived adsorption events arising from surface inhomogeneity can overwhelm the correlation measurement and mask the surface diffusion of the moving population. Here, we exploit a combination of these two techniques, imaging-FCS, for measurement of fast interfacial transport at a model chromatographic surface. This is accomplished by rapid imaging of the surface using an electron-multiplied-charged-coupled-device (CCD) camera, while limiting the acquisition to a small area on the camera to allow fast framing rates. The total intensity from the sampled region is autocorrelated to determine surface diffusion rates of molecules with millisecond time resolution. Here, the technique allows electronic control over the acquisition region, which can be used to avoid strong adsorption sites and thus minimize their contribution to the measured autocorrelation decay and to vary the acquisition area to resolve surface diffusion from adsorption and desorption kinetics. As proof of concept, imaging-FCS was used to measure surface diffusion rates, interfacial populations, and adsorption–desorption rates of 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3'3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine (DiI) on planar C18- and C1-modified surfaces.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2019

Flux Equations for Osmotically Moderated Sorption–Diffusion Transport in Rigid Microporous Membranes

The development of non-aqueous reverse osmosis separations via the use of rigid microporous membrane materials suggests that flux equations originally developed for swellable polymeric membranes should be revisited. This paper demonstrates that the gradient of fractional occupancy of penetrant molecules within the micropores of the membrane is the driving force for permeation without requiring assumptions about pressure within the membrane. Flux equations are derived using both Fickian and Maxwell-Stefan approaches, and different behavior in the permeate flux versus upstream hydraulic pressure relationship is shown to arise as a result of differences in the loading dependence of the single component Maxwell-Stefan diffusivity. Molecular modeling results available in the literature and experimental data obtained from carbon molecular sieve (CMS) membranes showcase that these loading-dependent changes in the Maxwell-Stefan diffusivity are possible. This loading dependence is separated into three regimes: so-called “weak confinement” diffusion and “strong confinement” diffusion, both of which have been discussed at length in the literature, and a new “hybrid confinement” diffusion, which is introduced here. Furthermore, the separation mechanism of solvent molecules through a rigid bimodally microporous membrane is studied using xylene molecules passing through CMS membranes fabricated under different conditions as examples. Altogether, this study provides fundamental insight and guidance into osmotically-moderated sorption-diffusion transport of solvent molecules through rigid microporous membranes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Diffusivity and Structure of Room Temperature Ionic Liquid in Various Organic Solvents

Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) hold promise for applications in electric double layer capacitors (EDLCs), owing to a much wider potential window, lower vapor pressure, and better thermal and chemical stabilities compared to conventional aqueous and organic electrolytes. However, because the low diffusivity of ions in neat RTILs negates the EDLCs’ advantage of high power density, the ionic liquids are often used in mixture with organic solvents. In this study, we measured the diffusivity of cations and anions in RTIL, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) ([BMIM + ][TFSI – ]), mixed with 10 organic solvents, by using the pulsed-field gradient NMR method. The ion diffusivity was found to follow that of neat solvents and in most studied solvents showed an excellent agreement with the predicted values reported in the recent molecular dynamics (MD) study [Thompson, M. W.; J. Phys. Chem. B 2019, 123, 1340-1347]. In two solvents consisting of long-chain molecules, however, the MD simulations predictions slightly underestimated the ionic diffusivities. The degree of ion dissociation was also estimated for each solvent by comparing the ionic conductivity with the molar conductivity derived from the diffusion measurements. The degree of ion dissociation and the hydrodynamic radius of ions suggest that the ions are coordinated by ~1 solvent molecule. Finally, the scarcity of solvent–ion interactions explains the fact that the diffusivity of ions in the mixture significantly depends on the viscosity of the solvent.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

NMR and Theoretical Study of In-Pore Diffusivity of Ionic Liquid–Solvent Mixtures

We report despite having a lower energy density than common batteries, electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) offer several advantages for high-power applications, including high power density, quick charge and discharge time, and long cycle life. Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) have been intensely studied as promising electrolytes for applications in ELDCs because of their wide potential window, low volatility, as well as thermal and chemical stability. The main deficiency of neat RTILs in such applications is the sluggish diffusivity, which restricts the EDLCs’ power density. To alleviate the slow diffusivity, RTILs can be used in a mixture with organic solvents. In this study, we applied two-dimensional exchange nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (2D EXSY NMR) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to investigate the diffusivity of anions of an RTIL, namely, 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (BMIM + –TFSI – ), dissolved in five different organic solvents, in the micropores of activated carbon. We determined that the relative concentrations of ions in solutions in the micropores were higher than those in the bulk solutions and were also solvent-dependent. The ion diffusivities in the pores were found to be almost 2 orders of magnitude slower than in the bulk solutions, with methanol showing the largest relative disparity. These results suggested that the interactions of solvents with the activated carbon are critical not only to the power density of EDLCs but also to the energy density. The comparisons of ion diffusivities between the experiments and the MD simulations suggest the need to consider also the surface functionalities of activated carbon for the simulation of ion diffusion in the micropores of activated carbon.

electric double layer capacitors↗