SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “flexible power generation”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

SourceResearch connectionFrom yearThrough year

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 703 records · Page 39

All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2021

Transient Efficiency Flexibility and Reliability Optimization of Coal-Fired Power Plants: Model-Predictive Control Library Development (Report)

This document pertains to the reporting requirements of DOE contract FE-0031767. The document covers the development of a model predictive control (MPC) library for implementing MPC for a general dynamic system. The library is implemented in a standardized manner in Matlab/Simulink, where core functions on model prediction, linearization and formulation and solution of a quadratic programming (QP) optimization problem is done in the core library - independent of the specific application. The user can provide the application-specific dynamic model in continuous and discrete time, to rapidly implement and test the MPC performance in a desktop simulation. The MPC optimization objective and constraints are also easily configured via an Excel file to allow iterative refinement as needed. Finally, the MPC library enables a rapid deployment to a target environment through auto C-code generation and containerization. The MPC library works seamlessly with the model based estimation (MBE) library to obtain the overall output feedback control solution. In this program, the reduced order model (ROM) of a coal-fired power plant (CFPP) is used to implement and test the MPC solution.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2021

Review of heat transfer enhancement techniques in two-phase flows for highly efficient and sustainable cooling

We show that two-phase internal flow is ubiquitous to many systems due to its ability to transfer large amounts of heat effectively. Recent advances motivated by sustainability have pushed towards augmenting the heat transfer between the tube and the two-phase working fluid. Augmenting heat transfer in two-phase flows enables process intensification, and compactness leading to reduced cost and material consumption. This review investigates the effect of heat transfer enhancement techniques on different fluids including R134a, R407C, R22, etc … The techniques are categorized into passive and active and focus on durable enhancement methods which do not include surface structuring or coating. Passive techniques utilize geometrical and surface modifications to induce better mixing. Several passive techniques are analyzed including fins, inserts, and more. In analyzing these techniques, the effect of changing geometric parameters is studied, and the limitations are highlighted. Further, active techniques that enable heat transfer enhancement through applying power are also investigated. Electrohydrodynamic approaches are analyzed and compared to passive techniques. Additionally, the implications of heat exchange enhancement in the context of global energy are discussed. An energy analysis discretized by the use sector is conducted, with an emphasis on predicting the future potential for renewable and sustainable development. Moreover, although active approaches provide the highest heat transfer enhancement, due to implementation difficulties, passive techniques are more frequently adopted. The review ends with discussion of next-generation heat exchangers which will rely more on additive manufacturing due to its flexibility and reduced cost per part as the technology matures.

Nusselt number↗

DOE OSTI2024

Heterogeneous oxidation of hydrogen-natural gas blends in a safe, clean, and efficient burner design

The growth of hydrogen as an alternative clean fuel for fulfilling thermal energy needs of multiple economic sectors globally requires access to reliable, safe, energy efficient, emission free combustion technology. The work described in this short communication shows the applicability of a novel heterogeneous combustion design in utilizing a wide range of hydrogen blended methane concentrations to cleanly and safely generate thermal energy. The utilization of a simple first principles design approach along with engineered materials yielded a fuel-flexible hybrid infrared-convection burner design capable of lowering NOx emissions by more than 95% while simultaneously improving the heat transfer efficiency by 15% with a wide range of hydrogen concentrations. Here, the safety and performance of the combustion design was demonstrated in an burner at capacities of up to 12,000 Btu/h in producing temperatures of 900 °C. The atmospheric burner concept was integrated in a cooktop configuration with combined thermal power rating of 30,000 Btu/h and operated with hydrogen blended natural gas.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Distributed optimization and control for autonomous distributed energy resource power dispatch and frequency regulation considering communication failures

Distributed energy resources (DERs) can significantly enhance grid flexibility by supplying power and secondary frequency regulation (SFR) services. Yet, their large number and dispersed nature limit the effectiveness of traditional centralized power dispatch and frequency control schemes, and expose the system to single-point communication failures. This paper presents a unified distributed optimization and control framework for DER power dispatch and SFR provision. A transmission-loss-aware distributed direct current optimal power flow is first formulated to optimize DER power dispatch and reserve scheduling. On top of this, a fully distributed control scheme for DER autonomous SFR provision is developed to allocate automatic generation control signals cost-effectively while ensuring robustness to communication link disruptions. The framework is validated on IEEE 14-bus and 39-bus transmission systems with large-scale distribution feeders using transmission-distribution dynamic co-simulation, demonstrating reliable and autonomous DER power dispatch and SFR provision under diverse operating conditions and communication contingencies.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2021

Macroscopic weavable fibers of carbon nanotubes with giant thermoelectric power factor

Low-dimensional materials have recently attracted much interest as thermoelectric materials because of their charge carrier confinement leading to thermoelectric performance enhancement. Carbon nanotubes are promising candidates because of their one-dimensionality in addition to their unique advantages such as flexibility and light weight. However, preserving the large power factor of individual carbon nanotubes in macroscopic assemblies has been challenging, primarily due to poor sample morphology and a lack of proper Fermi energy tuning. Here, we report an ultrahigh value of power factor (14± 5 mW m -1 K -2 ) for macroscopic weavable fibers of aligned carbon nanotubes with ultrahigh electrical and thermal conductivity. The observed giant power factor originates from the ultrahigh electrical conductivity achieved through excellent sample morphology, combined with an enhanced Seebeck coefficient through Fermi energy tuning. We fabricate a textile thermoelectric generator based on these carbon nanotube fibers, which demonstrates high thermoelectric performance, weavability, and scalability. The giant power factor we observe make these fibers strong candidates for the emerging field of thermoelectric active cooling, which requires a large thermoelectric power factor and a large thermal conductivity at the same time.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

TDCOSMO - IV. Hierarchical time-delay cosmography – joint inference of the Hubble constant and galaxy density profiles

The H0LiCOW collaboration inferred via strong gravitational lensing time delays a Hubble constant value of H0 = 73.3−1.8+1.7 km s−1 Mpc−1, describing deflector mass density profiles by either a power-law or stars (constant mass-to-light ratio) plus standard dark matter halos. The mass-sheet transform (MST) that leaves the lensing observables unchanged is considered the dominant source of residual uncertainty in H0. We quantify any potential effect of the MST with a flexible family of mass models, which directly encodes it, and they are hence maximally degenerate with H0. Our calculation is based on a new hierarchical Bayesian approach in which the MST is only constrained by stellar kinematics. The approach is validated on mock lenses, which are generated from hydrodynamic simulations. We first applied the inference to the TDCOSMO sample of seven lenses, six of which are from H0LiCOW, and measured H0 = 74.5−6.1+5.6 km s−1 Mpc−1. Secondly, in order to further constrain the deflector mass density profiles, we added imaging and spectroscopy for a set of 33 strong gravitational lenses from the Sloan Lens ACS (SLACS) sample. For nine of the 33 SLAC lenses, we used resolved kinematics to constrain the stellar anisotropy. From the joint hierarchical analysis of the TDCOSMO+SLACS sample, we measured H0 = 67.4−3.2+4.1 km s−1 Mpc−1. This measurement assumes that the TDCOSMO and SLACS galaxies are drawn from the same parent population. The blind H0LiCOW, TDCOSMO-only and TDCOSMO+SLACS analyses are in mutual statistical agreement. The TDCOSMO+SLACS analysis prefers marginally shallower mass profiles than H0LiCOW or TDCOSMO-only. Without relying on the form of the mass density profile used by H0LiCOW, we achieve a ∼5% measurement of H0. While our new hierarchical analysis does not statistically invalidate the mass profile assumptions by H0LiCOW – and thus the H0 measurement relying on them – it demonstrates the importance of understanding the mass density profile of elliptical galaxies. The uncertainties on H0 derived in this paper can be reduced by physical or observational priors on the form of the mass profile, or by additional data.Key words: gravitational lensing: strong / galaxies: general / galaxies: kinematics and dynamics / distance scale / cosmological parameters / cosmology: observations⋆ The full analysis is available at https://github.com/TDCOSMO/hierarchy_analysis_2020_public.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2020

A Machine Learning-based Approach to Predict the Aggregate Flexibility of HVAC Systems

Use of renewable energy resources can play a significant role in mitigation of climate change since they reduce the dependency on fossil fuels. However, high penetration of renewable energy resources into the power grid may cause some reliability problems. Ancillary services are key to realize the potential of renewable resources without disturbing the grid reliability. In recent years, many control approaches focused on exploiting the aggregate flexible heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) loads of buildings. However, there are still research gaps in assessing in advance the resulting indoor temperature responses for given total power and weather profiles before implementing the controls in the buildings. Such an assessment is critical to guarantee satisfying both the grid related objective (reliability) and the building related objective (occupants' comfort). Towards addressing this research gap, this paper presents a machine-learning approach for predicting the ratings of indoor temperature responses. In this approach, a prediction model was developed using a dataset generated by a set of model-free control simulations. The developed model achieved high prediction accuracy and showed the potential of the proposed approach.

Amasyali, Kadir↗

DOE OSTI2025

Flexible Resource Scheduler for FAST-DERMS (FRS-FASTDERMS) v0.9

The Flexible Resource Scheduler is a hierarchical controller that manages the distributed energy resources in a distribution substation or distribution feeder to provide a firm commitment of power flow at the substation or feeder head to be scheduled in transmission-level markets as an aggregated demand resource. It is the reference controller for the FAST-DERMS Architecture, developed in tandem with the architecture under the DOE FAST-DERMS project. It is comprised of a day-ahead stochastic optimization, which schedules substation power flow and reserves, a intra-hour MPC, which generates dispatch base points for DER, and a real-time PID controller maintaining that dispatches DER to maintain the substation power around the base points. The repository also includes a representative aggregator controller, and all of the necessary components to run a simulation using PNNL's GridAPPS-D software with the controller.

MacDonald, Jason [Lawrence Berkeley National Labor↗

DOE OSTI2024

Electron Density Measurements Using USPR (Final Scientific/Technical Report)

UC Davis has fabricated an ultrashort pulse reflectometer (USPR) diagnostic instrument for electron density profile measurements on compact, short duration, magnetically-confined fusion-energy concept devices such as spheromaks and FRCs. The USPR system transmits extremely short duration (~few nsec) chirped waveforms that together span 29 to 75 GHz. These chirped waveforms illuminate and reflect from the target plasma, with each frequency component reflecting from a different density layer (higher frequencies probe deeper into the plasma before reflecting). The reflected waveforms are split into roughly 42 different frequencies; time-of-flight (TOF) measurements made at each frequency with high resolution (~25 psec measurement resolution which corresponds to ~5 mm). These TOF data may then be inverted via software to generate electron density profiles with high time resolution (~10 μsec). At the heart of the system is a field programmable gate array (FPGA) based controller which collects and processes all of the USPR data in addition to generating all of the control signals required for maximum flexibility. The FPGA controller has the software flexibility to be easily reconfigured for different plasma devices, and the entire system sufficiently compact to be easily and quickly transported between devices. A high speed impulse generator was transformed into a set of three ultrashort pulse transmitter chirps using a combination of dispersive waveguide, frequency doublers and high-pass filters. A mm-wave controller was fabricated to sequentially switch between the three chirps, directing the chirps one-by-one to three different mm-wave assemblies spanning 29-75 GHz. Each mm-wave assembly consists of a high power active multiplier chain which converts the transmitter chirp to higher frequencies, and a broadband mixer which downconverts the reflected waveform to the 2-18 GHz range of the UPSR receiver. The 16-channel receiver (shared by all 3 mm-wave assemblies) was fabricated employing custom TOF modules capable of operating at a high 1 MHz sampling rate. Laboratory testing of the full system revealed the presence of unwanted harmonics from the multiplication process, with interference observed in the downconverted reflections at selected frequency channels that could not be completely filtered out. Additional interference effects arising from internal reflections within the mm-wave assemblies were minimized using a high-speed switch which served to “gate out” much of these reflections. The USPR diagnostic was transported and installed onto the HIT-SIU plasma device, becoming operational on 11/08/2022. Although designed to span 3 distinct mm-wave bands, the HIT-SIU plasmas at this time were sufficiently low density such that only the lowest of the three bands was likely to have strong plasma reflections. The system was then set to operate on only the lowest band (assembly #1), with data collected every 1 μsec rather than 3 μsec which would have been the case when cycling through all three bands. Connected to HIT-SIU, time-varying plasma reflections were observed on 9 of 16 possible frequency channels. Close examination of the data collected revealed issues previously unobserved in laboratory testing, associated with (a) reflections from the small aperture horns required for operation within the HIT-SIU device, and (b) a dependence of the recorded TOF with the threshold voltage of a given channel. Plans were made to address each of these issues before undertaking any future campaigns.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

NASA NTRS1993

Polarimetric Multispectral Imaging Technology

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is developing a remote sensing technology on which a new generation of compact, lightweight, high-resolution, low-power, reliable, versatile, programmable scientific polarimetric multispectral imaging instruments can be built to meet the challenge of future planetary exploration missions. The instrument is based on the fast programmable acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) of tellurium dioxide (TeO2) that operates in the wavelength range of 0.4-5 microns. Basically, the AOTF multispectral imaging instrument measures incoming light intensity as a function of spatial coordinates, wavelength, and polarization. Its operation can be in either sequential, random access, or multiwavelength mode as required. This provides observation flexibility, allowing real-time alternation among desired observations, collecting needed data only, minimizing data transmission, and permitting implementation of new experiments. These will result in optimization of the mission performance with minimal resources. Recently we completed a polarimetric multispectral imaging prototype instrument and performed outdoor field experiments for evaluating application potentials of the technology. We also investigated potential improvements on AOTF performance to strengthen technology readiness for applications. This paper will give a status report on the technology and a prospect toward future planetary exploration.

Cheng, L.-J.↗

DOE OSTI2022

DSO+T: Valuation Methodology and Economic Metrics (DSO+T Study: Volume 4)

This report summarizes a rigorous valuation analysis methodology used by the Distribution System Operator with Transactive (DSO+T) study to estimate the financial benefits and costs of adopting Transactive Energy coordination of distributed energy resources for key stakeholders (for example distribution system operators and customers). This was achieved by modeling the value exchanges between stakeholders and determining the annualized costs and revenues experienced by stakeholders, enabling the evaluation of overall impact on stakeholder’s annualized cash flow. Extensive work was conducted developing methods to estimate the operating costs of distribution system operators at a level of granularity that would allow the financial impact of implementing a transactive energy approach to be estimated. This work included developing parametric models for labor and software costs, distribution system capital and maintenance costs, growth rates, and factors to determine annualized costs of capital investments. Simulation results were used to calculate wholesale energy costs and revenues from retail sales. Valuation analysis methods were also developed for other stakeholders including customers, the transmission system operator, independent system operator, and generators. The resulting capability allows a complete mapping of the flow of financial value between stakeholders that can be directly integrated with the results of demand flexibility simulations. Example results are provided for a business-as-usual case and compared to a transactive energy case as well as to actual cost data.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2026

District-Scale Analysis of Electricity Load and Strategies to Improve Energy Reliability Using Prototype District Models

Projected increases in electricity demand in the U.S. highlight the urgent need for effective load management to ensure grid reliability. As the building sector accounts for approximately 75% of electricity usage, enhancing energy efficiency and flexibility in this sector is crucial. Adopting district-level approaches offers significant advantages over traditional individual building analyses by enabling shared infrastructure and economies of scale. To navigate the data and computational challenges associated with modeling energy at the district level, prototype district models have been proposed as holistic, system-level solutions that capture complex interactions within typical configurations. This study presents these models as a reference tool for analyzing district-scale energy systems across various climate zones in the U.S. Developed with input from stakeholders, these models integrate varied building characteristics, inter-building connections, and energy system interactions. A case study utilizing the Urban Edge prototype district model, implemented on the URBANopt™ platform, evaluates multiple demand scenarios and the impact of distributed energy resources such as fuel-fired backup generators, photovoltaic systems, and batteries. Findings suggest that while new electric systems can significantly reduce annual energy use, they may also elevate peak electricity loads, with a notable 43% increase in heating-dominant climate zone 5B. The optimal backup power solutions vary based on location, influenced by factors such as utility rates and incentives. For example, PV and batteries perform well in high-cost regions like New York City, while diesel backup generators are more suitable for backup needs in climate zone 3A, such as Atlanta. Thus, this research highlights the importance of prototype district models for future district-scale energy planning.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2020

Sequence-to-sequence neural networks for short-term electrical load forecasting in commercial office buildings

The U.S. power grid is transforming to become smarter, cleaner, and more effi- cient. This is leading to the addition of significant distributed variable renew- able generation. Due to the variable nature of renewable generation, the short- and long-term supply-demand imbalances are less predictable, and conventional approaches to mitigating the imbalance will not be efficient or cost-effective. To address this challenge, transactive control technologies have been proposed which balance energy generation and consumption with market activity and in- frastructural limitations. Transactive control requires the ability of individual end-use loads to express flexibility as a function of a transactive signal (e.g., price). Empirical gray- and black-box models have been widely used to express flexibility, and although these approaches are generally easy to construct and simple to use, they do not capture the non-linear behavior that some end-use loads represent . Machine learning approaches have been proposed to address this limitation. Although deep learning approaches for forecasting end-use loads have been explored, certain aspects of the application of deep models to load forecasting are not well understood. These aspects include how much training data is required, and how models should be structured and trained. To that end, this work explores how to approach applying deep recurrent neural networks to short-term electrical load forecasting with a case study of four commercial office buildings. We identify data requirements for training accurate models of whole building electricity use conditioned on outdoor temperature, provide insight into model hyperparameter sensitivity, and demonstrate how readily models can be generalized to unseen buildings.

Skomski, Elliott↗

DOE OSTI2020

Cost estimates of production scale semitransparent organic photovoltaic modules for building integrated photovoltaics

Building integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs) are attached to commercial and residential structures to enable solar energy harvesting. While conventional Si photovoltaics (PVs) are dominant in the current market, second and third generation thin film solar cells based on amorphous Si, CdTe, CIGS, perovskites or organic photovoltaics (OPVs) are often considered as an alternative for BIPV applications since they may offer reduced costs compared to Si PVs. Indeed, recent advances in performance suggest that lightweight, flexible and visibly transparent OPVs can potentially be integrated into windows or other applications to which Si PVs are less well suited. Here, we estimate the cost of high efficiency, semitransparent OPVs (ST-OPVs) based on solution processing in a roll-to-roll (R2R) manufacturing line. Assuming modules with 10% power conversion efficiency (PCE), a 70% geometric fill factor (GFF), and 95% inverter efficiency, we anticipate a %1.6 per Wp module manufacturing cost that includes the cost of the microinverter to condition the OPV dc output to be compatible with the ac line voltage of the building. The materials and inverter cost comprise ~90% of the total module cost. Hence, with simplified material synthesis and a lower inverter cost, including marginally improved PCE and GFF, we expect the cost can be as low as $0.47 per Wp. Here, while the module costs ~60% of the average (uninstalled) double-pane window, we expect the payback period can be as short as 2 to 6 years, suggesting that OPVs can be an economic and attractive candidate for BIPV applications.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Microgrid's Role in Enhancing the Security and Flexibility of City Energy Systems

Smart cities depend on flexible and secure energy systems to ensure resilient power for critical infrastructure; however, recent weather-related events and cyberattacks have highlighted weaknesses in our energy systems, with the potential for widespread economic and security impacts. As stated by the Executive Office of the President, "the resilience of the US electric grid is a key part of the nation's defense against severe weather." To address the energy delivery security challenge, microgrids are rising as a viable solution that enhances the flexibility and resilience of the distribution grid and boosts the reliability of the local supply for the end-user. Traditionally, high capital investment has been a barrier to large-scale adoption of microgrid technology. Understanding the flexibility and resilience benefits of microgrids and accounting for the associated value streams can make the microgrid's proposition economically viable. In this chapter, microgrids' utility and their potential to serve as a flexible and resilient resource for the utility grid by providing capabilities such as peak shaving, demand response, and frequency regulation is presented. Moreover, other value streams, such as (1) their ability to island during a disaster and sustain critical loads which makes them a robust resilience solution for end-users, in the event of the utility grid outage and (2) microgrids also provide a flexible platform for integrating distributed energy resources in conjunction with storage and conventional generation technologies, strengthen microgrid's role in reducing the over-arching goal of emission reduction. Given the myriad of benefits associated with microgrids, we present strategies which can be employed for making microgrid itself resilient against physical and cyberthreats by employing hardware, software, and personnel training solutions to operate the microgrid before, during, and after a potential disaster. This chapter, thus, provides a holistic study of the microgrid as a resilience resource, for the utility grid, and a self-contained end-user for the end-user.

cyber-physical system↗

DOE OSTI2022

Addressing Market Issues in Electrical Power Systems with Large Shares of Variable Renewable Energy

This paper reports recent findings from IEA Wind TCP Task 25, which compiles international experiences and research related to large-scale integration of wind and other renewable energy. In the paper, we address the main challenges for market integration of variable renewable energy, relating to price formation, cost recovery, balancing and other grid services. The paper gives an overview of recent scenario studies on electricity price impacts of (1) various generation, energy storage and demand types in different markets, and (2) different market designs and energy/climate policies. Studying markets with very high shares of variable renewable energy requires an improved set of analysis tools for forecasting market outcomes, estimating flexibility needs and sources, and assessing resource adequacy. Key market features need to be investigated within these improved analytical capabilities for systems transitioning to high shares of variable renewable energy, storage and flexible demand. System services that can be supported by markets will likely need to be revisited. Finally, this paper identifies open questions and suggested future market design work for supporting systems with very high shares of variable renewable energy, which are to be addressed in follow-up work of Task 25 collaborative research.

cost recovery↗

DOE OSTI2026

Submodule-Level Decentralized Control for Cascaded Quadruple Active Bridge-Based Medium-Voltage Converters

High-power, low-voltage DC (LVDC) loads, such as AI data centers, electric vehicle fast-charging hubs, and hydrogen electrolyzers, are accelerating the deployment of solid-state transformers (SSTs) that directly interface medium-voltage AC (MVAC) to LVDC, streamlining power delivery. This paper proposes a submodule-level decentralized control strategy for an SST comprising a cascaded H-bridge (CHB) active rectifier on the MVAC side and per-module quadruple-active-bridge (QAB) converters on the LVDC side with local controllers. The proposed strategy eliminates the need for high-fidelity, real-time cross-isolation communication by synchronizing all active bridges to a common heartbeat signal and enabling the primary- and secondary-side controllers to generate independent local control signals (phase shifts). The resultant phase shifts naturally govern average and double-line frequency power transfer between active bridges, enabling each side to meet its control objectives using only local measurements. Detailed controller design considerations are presented based on a stability analysis. Comprehensive electromagnetic-transient simulations demonstrate tight DC-link voltage regulation, high-quality grid currents, and robust operation under load transients and grid disturbances, without real-time communication among the submodule controllers. These results indicate that the proposed scheme can significantly enhance the reliability, scalability, and flexibility of cascaded bridge-based medium-voltage converters.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Design Considerations for Practical Li-S Battery Components for Electric Aviaiton

The development of high-energy, high-safety, and high-power batteries beyond electric automobile requirements is vital for future electric aviation applications. The transition to non-volatile solid-state electrolytes (SSE) promises many advantages over traditional flammable liquid electrolytes, and may also be an enabling technology for next generation chemistries. However, significant manufacturing challenges must be overcome before the adoption of such technology. Electrolytes developed in this study were produced as sulfide-polymer composites with densified thicknesses between 20-30 microns using a tape-casting technique and elastomer binder [1]. The composites were determined to retain reasonable ionic conductivity with improved flexibility and scalability critical for practical manufacturing of such cells. Films were produced 10-15 times thinner than comparable bulk powder electrolytes and within the range of commercial polyolefin separators (25 micron) used in commercial liquid containing lithium-ion cells. Composite conductivities were maintained above 0.2mS/cm, which holds promise for future electric aviation applications. Processing techniques are investigated to further improve electrochemical performance.

battery↗