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DOE OSTI2024

Impact of Pressure-Dependent Interfacial Tension and Contact Angle on Capillary Heterogeneity Trapping of CO2 in Storage Aquifers

Summary Carbon dioxide (CO2) capillary trapping increases the total amount of CO2 that can be effectively immobilized in storage aquifers. This trapping, manifesting itself as accumulated CO2 columns at a continuum scale, is because of capillary threshold effects that occur below low-permeability barriers. Considering that capillary pressure is dictated by heterogeneous pore throat size, the trapped CO2 column height and associated CO2 saturation will vary spatially within a storage aquifer. This variation will be influenced by two pressure-dependent interfacial parameters—CO2/brine interfacial tension (IFT) and CO2/brine/rock contact angle. Our objective is to understand how the pressure dependence of these two parameters affects the heterogeneity of capillary trapped CO2 at a continuum scale. Our conceptual model is a 1D two-zone system with the upper zone being a flow barrier (low permeability) and the lower zone being a flow path (high permeability). The inputs to this model include microfacies-dependent capillary pressure vs. saturation curves and permeability values. The input capillary pressure curves were collected in the literature that represents carbonate microfacies (e.g., dolograinstone) in a prevalent formation in the Permian Basin. We then used the Leverett j-function to scale the capillary pressure curve for the two zones that are assigned with the same or different microfacies. During scaling, we considered the influence of pressure on both the IFT and contact angle of CO2/brine/dolomite systems. We varied the zone permeability contrast ratio from 2 to 50. We then assumed capillary gravity equilibriums and calculated the CO2 saturation buildup corresponding to various trapped CO2 column heights. The CO2 saturation buildup is defined as the CO2 saturation in the lower layer minus that in the upper one. We found that the saturation buildup can be doubled when varying pressure in a storage aquifer, after considering pressure-dependent IFT and contact angles. Thus, assuming these two parameters to be constant across such aquifers would cause large errors in the quantification of capillary trapping of CO2. The whole study demonstrates the importance of considering pressure-dependent interfacial properties in predicting the vertical distribution of capillary trapped CO2. It has important implications in developing a better understanding of leakage risks and consequent storage safety.

Engineering↗

DOE OSTI2024

Understanding a Stratigraphic Hydrothermal Resource – Geophysical Imaging at Steptoe Valley, Nevada

Sandia National Laboratories partnered with a multi-disciplinary group of subject matter experts to evaluate a stratigraphic geothermal resource in Steptoe Valley, Nevada using both established and novel geophysical imaging techniques. The stratigraphic reservoir in northern Steptoe Valley was previously discovered during oil and gas exploration. Subsequent studies, such as the Nevada Play Fairway Analysis, included data which further highlighted potential resource targets in the basin. Geophysical surveys, complemented with refined geologic mapping and geochemical sampling, were deployed to further characterize the resource. The resulting 3D geologic interpretation, conceptual model refinements, and reservoir simulations suggest that a >100MWe power-capable reservoir is likely economically accessible using conventional well placement and stimulation techniques in the Paleozoic carbonates of the deep/central basin of northern Steptoe Valley. Additional geophysical characterization and exploration drilling efforts are recommended to calibrate interpretation and determine where/how to potentially develop the northern Steptoe resource. The geophysical tools, interpretations, lessons learned, and public data generated by this study establish an exploration methodology to inform decisions for characterization and development of northern Steptoe Valley and other stratigraphic geothermal reservoirs in the western U.S.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Basin & Range Investigation for Developing Geothermal Energy

Hidden geothermal systems represent a potentially prolific energy resource that could support critical U.S. public and government energy priorities. Basin and Range Investigations for Developing Geothermal Energy (BRIDGE) addressed some the challenges associated with hidden system exploration by prioritizing cost-effective exploration early on through strategic workflow and informed decision-making that mitigates early risk and shifts resources to later exploration stages (e.g., drilling). Sandia National Laboratories partnered with U.S. Navy Geothermal Office, Geologic Geothermal Group, and independent consultants, with additional collaboration with U.S. Geological Survey and private industry. The primary tool of the BRIDGE project was to deploy a regional-scale airborne electromagnetic method to investigate the shallow resistivity structure in areas with high prospectivity. This was followed up at several prospects by a multidisciplinary exploration approach, including additional geologic, geophysical and geochemical studies. A central tenet to the BRIDGE methodology is that zones of low resistivity frequently occur over geothermal systems in the Basin and Range, and when paired with other data constraints, imaging these zones can enable discovery of these systems. In addition to exploring greenfield areas (i.e., Grover Point), the BRIDGE project also flew HTEM resistivity surveys over known geothermal systems including those with established power plants (Don A. Campbell and Salt Wells) and prospects that are known to the literature but remain undeveloped, at least in part, due to a lack of understanding on the location of their producible reservoirs. BRIDGE produced a comprehensive set of data from prospects identified in the Nevada Play Fairway Analysis along with conceptual models for top ranking prospects, wherein all of the observations are used to inform an interpreted model of the system. These models present a range of possible system parameters such as temperature and size, and they are further informed by system analogues in the Basin and Range province and elsewhere. The results of this work leave space for further exploration that may now occur at prospects ‘down the list’ rather than distribution exploration resources evenly across all prospects.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2026

EVs-at-RISC: A Secure and Resilient Interoperable SCM Control System Architecture for Electric Vehicle’s-at-Scale (Final Technical Report)

The EVs-at-RISC project was a five-year research, development, and demonstration initiative to create foundational tools for utility-scale fleet aggregation and Smart Charge Management (SCM) of Electric Vehicles (EV), Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure (EVCI), and related Distributed Energy Resources (DER). Rather than seeking to develop and demonstrate highly perfected SCM algorithms and control strategies, this project instead focused on creating foundational software solutions that enable unprecedented digital interoperability across the communications technologies and vendor platforms used to manage EV , EVCI, and DER, as well as existing energy management infrastructure operated by utilities, grid operators, and aggregators. This project then extends these novel interoperability capabilities to develop and deploy powerful middleware abstractions across grid edge networks and EVCI/DER fleet aggregations incorporating modern software tools and best practices, such as CI/CD, to bring the immense capabilities of infrastructure-as-code and policy-as-code to modern grid edge network environments. This addresses the foremost systemic issues preventing realization of any net operational benefits from scaled deployment of behind-the-meter EV, EVCI, and DER assets in electric power grids and markets today. The results of this approach and project unlock massive potential for new SCM capabilities to be easily prototyped, evaluated, and deployed at-scale within the existing grid edge network infrastructure and EVCI/DER technology ecosystem. The EVs-at-RISC project achieves this by extending Open Field Message Bus (OpenFMB), a conceptual model for digital interoperability and distributed intelligence in traditional front-of-meter utility SCADA networks, validating our hypothesis that OpenFMB could be similarly used to solve systemic digital interoperability issues in behind-the-meter environments and unlock real-world utility-scale SCM capabilities without requiring any new proprietary vendor solutions or significant infrastructure reconfiguration.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2025

On the emergent scale of bedrock groundwater contribution to headwater mountain streams

We investigated the contribution of bedrock groundwater to streamflow as a function of catchment scale in a headwater stream. Synoptic surveys were conducted during hydrologically important periods of the year using multiple environmental tracers in stream water, soil water, and bedrock groundwater, along a first-order montane stream, in west-central Montana. Sampled analytes included 222 Rn, used to constrain total subsurface flux, and major and minor elements, used in end-member mixing analysis (EMMA) to identify the contributions of soil and bedrock groundwater to the stream. Partitioning between soil-derived and bedrock-derived groundwater was then analyzed as a function of the incremental and accumulated sub-catchment sizes. Radon results indicated that subsurface water contributions accounted for the majority of streamflow at all surveyed times. EMMA results revealed that the bedrock groundwater contribution to streamflow varied between 26% during peak snowmelt and 44% during late summer. Streamflow generation was dominated by soil groundwater contribution along the entire reach, but the bedrock groundwater contribution increased consistently with accumulated sub-catchment size. However, groundwater contributions were not well-correlated with incremental sub-catchment size. The scale at which increased bedrock groundwater discharge can be correlated with sub-catchment size appears to be >1 km 2 for our study. Our results are consistent with a conceptual model where streamflow is predominantly generated by a 3D subsurface nested flow system. Local subsurface heterogeneities control the stream source at local scales but begin to average out at scales >2 km 2 . Our study indicates that, while soil groundwater is the dominant source, bedrock groundwater remains an important and predictable contributor to streamflow throughout the year, even in a snow-dominated, mountainous headwater catchment.

environmental tracers↗

DOE OSTI2024

Exploring Geothermal Potential of Great Basin Sub-Regions: Preprint

The INnovative Geothermal Exploration through Novel Investigations Of Undiscovered Systems (INGENIOUS) project aims to discover new, economically viable hidden geothermal systems in the Great Basin region by building on previous work in play fairway analysis and machine learning. A key objective of this project is to develop an exploration workflow to reduce geothermal exploration risks for hidden geothermal systems. A single preliminary play fairway workflow was developed from the assessment of the regional INGENIOUS geological, geophysical, and geochemical datasets. This workflow provided new preliminary predictive geothermal fairway maps for the INGENIOUS study area, which encompasses most of Nevada, western Utah, southern Idaho, southeastern Oregon, and easternmost California. However, a recent study (incorporating machine learning techniques) of a portion of Nevada identified four geologic domains and determined that the relative importance of individual datasets or features as indicators of geothermal potential may differ across these domains. The INGENIOUS study area includes a much larger and more geologically diverse region; therefore, additional geologic domains or sub-regions are expected. To assess the sub-regions in the INGENIOUS study area, principal component analysis and k-means clustering were applied. Preliminary results indicate that the INGENIOUS regional data cluster into groups that relate to different geologic domains in the Great Basin region. These include domains such as the Walker Lane, extensional western Great Basin region, broad lower strain region in the eastern Great Basin of western Utah and eastern Nevada, Quaternary volcanic fields, and the area adjacent to the Snake River Plain. These clusters are assessed to determine the key geologic drivers of the identified clusters. Understanding this variability can provide key insights for the exploration and characterization of hidden geothermal systems in the Great Basin region and could indicate the need to develop multiple geothermal conceptual models and play fairway workflows for the INGENIOUS study area.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Exploring Geothermal Potential of Great Basin Sub-Regions

exploration↗

DOE OSTI2024

RCC for CO2 Process Model (Reactive Carbon Capture (RCC) for Methanol Production from Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Process Model) [SWR-24-68]

This process model is a conceptual process model that simulate the reactive captures of CO2 and the subsequent conversion of captured CO2 to methanol. The model was developed using Aspen Plus.

Tan, Eric↗

DOE OSTI2025

Reviews and syntheses: Variable inundation across Earth's terrestrial ecosystems

Abstract. The structure, function, and dynamics of Earth's terrestrial ecosystems are profoundly influenced by how often (frequency) and how long (duration) they are inundated with water. A diverse array of natural and human-engineered systems experience temporally variable inundation whereby they fluctuate between inundated and non-inundated states. Variable inundation spans extreme events to predictable sub-daily cycles. Variably inundated ecosystems (VIEs) include hillslopes, non-perennial streams, wetlands, floodplains, temporary ponds, tidal systems, storm-impacted coastal zones, and human-engineered systems. VIEs are diverse in terms of inundation regimes, water chemistry and flow velocity, soil and sediment properties, vegetation, and many other properties. The spatial and temporal scales of variable inundation are vast, ranging from sub-meter to whole landscapes and from sub-hourly to multi-decadal. The broad range of system types and scales makes it challenging to predict the hydrology, biogeochemistry, ecology, and physical evolution of VIEs. Despite all experiencing the loss and gain of an overlying water column, VIEs are rarely considered together in conceptual, theoretical, modeling, or measurement frameworks and approaches. Studying VIEs together has the potential to generate mechanistic understanding that is transferable across a much broader range of environmental conditions, relative to knowledge generated by studying any one VIE type. We postulate that enhanced transferability will be important for predicting changes in VIE function in response to global change. Here we aim to catalyze cross-VIE science that studies drivers and impacts of variable inundation across Earth's VIEs. To this end, we complement expert mini-reviews of eight major VIE systems with overviews of VIE-relevant methods and challenges associated with scale. We conclude with perspectives on how cross-VIE science can derive transferable understanding via unifying conceptual models in which the impacts of variable inundation are studied across multi-dimensional environmental space.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

A Comprehensive Calibration Framework for the Northwest River Forecast Center

We present a comprehensive framework developed by the Northwest River Forecast Center for calibrating hydrologically diverse basins. The framework includes models for snow, soil moisture, routing, channel loss, and consumptive use. Data inputs include a wide range of open-access datasets for meteorology, land use, topography, and land cover. The framework uses conceptual hydrologic models to handle basins with various hydrologic regimes including rain-driven and snowmelt-dominated basins. We also develop a flexible automatic calibration system that can handle numerous unobservable model parameters in a computationally efficient manner. A single-basin automatic calibration run can typically be completed on a modern laptop in under 10 min. We found that model performance metrics for this new approach match the quality of the NWRFC's previous labor-intensive manual calibrations. The model performance also rivals that of a state-of-the-art deep learning model at a fraction of the computational cost. This framework presents a new standard for the quality of calibrations possible with lumped conceptual hydrologic models, combining careful data curation, an objective calibration framework, and expert local knowledge. In addition, we have made software packages available for the entire suite of National Weather Service River Forecast System models, including SAC-SMA, SNOW-17, and Lag-K. These modern interfaces are intended to increase accessibility and facilitate future research.

Forecasting↗

DOE OSTI2026

A Field Guide to Corralling the Chaos: A Conceptual Framework for Using Models to Guide Opportunistic Field Studies of Natural Disturbances

Watersheds regulate biogeochemical processes and provide ecosystem services to human societies, but disturbances can fundamentally alter these processes across space and time. Determining when and where to sample to capture disturbance impacts in watersheds remains a central challenge. Manipulation studies and long-term monitoring are often constrained by scope, and opportunistic studies often lack pre-disturbance data needed to statistically determine disturbance impacts. We identify a persistent knowledge gap: the absence of a clear, transferable framework to guide opportunistic disturbance research where pre-disturbance data collection is not a feasible option. To address this gap, we present a conceptual framework that intentionally integrates modeling and empirical observation in an iterative, stepwise model–experiment workflow. We demonstrate its application through two contrasting case studies: wildfire impacts on headwater streams using a pre-disturbance preparedness approach, and saltwater flooding impacts on coastal forests using an ‘ex-post-facto’ approach. From these applications, we assess strengths, limitations, and the critical role of team science for transferability across disturbance types and study designs. Broadly, this framework offers a scalable path towards more rigorous, timely, and actionable disturbance science that can inform watershed management, hazard risk reduction, and ecosystem resilience.

Coastal Biogeochemistry↗

DOE OSTI2025

AI-Assisted Conceptual Development of a Pre-Geometric Cosmological Model - An Exercise in AI-Assisted Conceptual Framework Generation, Paper III: Cosmological Structure and Predictions

This paper develops the cosmological consequences of the replication-driven cosmogenesis framework introduced in Paper I and the emergent geometric structure established in Paper II. After the replication epoch freezes out, the coherent sector occupies a finite spectral band and contains a population of excited states. The relaxation of these excited coherent configurations does not produce coherent radiation; instead, all released energy flows into the incoherent substrate, where the randomizer acts as a rapid phase-scrambling mechanism. This process generates an effectively thermal radiation bath, providing a natural reheating mechanism that requires neither inflaton oscillations nor scalar-field potentials, and can be contrasted with standard scenarios of nonperturbative reheating dynamics. Subsequent symmetry-breaking transitions in the coherent vacuum inject additional radiation, yielding a multi-stage thermal history with well-defined energy transfers. We derive the effective equations of state for each component—the cosmological vacuum, the coherent vacuum, and the radiation bath—and show how their interplay produces an FRW-like expansion. The discrete sequence of coherent-state relaxations imprints a distinctive multi-peaked stochastic gravitational-wave background, whose spectral structure reflects the underlying hierarchy of coherent frequencies. Potential observational signatures in the LISA and mid-band frequency ranges are highlighted, providing concrete avenues to test this replication-based cosmological framework in the context of standard cosmological gravitational-wave backgrounds and LISA-oriented forecasts.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2025

AI-Assisted Conceptual Development of a Pre-Geometric Cosmological Model - An Exercise in AI-Assisted Conceptual Framework Generation, Paper II: Local Geometry and Metric Structure

This paper develops the geometric sector of the replication-driven cosmogenesis framework introduced in Paper I. Starting from a pre-geometric spectral substrate and a minimal set of replication axioms, we show how coherent self-replicating units generate a spatial adjacency graph whose continuum limit acquires an effective Riemannian structure. The replication dynamics determines a characteristic correlation length that seeds the local metric, while overlap relations among coherent units produce an isotropic neighborhood geometry with an emergent dimensionality $d_{\rm eff}\simeq 3$ across a broad range of replication factors. As replication slows and causal order stabilizes, a limiting signal speed $c_\ast$ appears, providing the basis for the Lorentzian structure of spacetime without assuming a pre-existing light cone. We derive conditions under which the adjacency graph converges to a smooth three-dimensional manifold, describe the transition from Euclidean to Lorentzian propagation, and identify geometric invariants controlled by the replication parameters. This work establishes the geometric and causal layer of the replication cosmogenesis program, bridging the spectral axioms of Paper I to the cosmological dynamics explored in Paper III.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2025

AI-Assisted Conceptual Development of a Pre-Geometric Cosmological Model - An Exercise in AI-Assisted Conceptual Framework Generation, Paper I: Foundations and Replication Dynamics

We develop a pre-geometric cosmological framework in which existence is identified with a finite amount of unstructured energy possessing vibration as its only intrinsic property. This vibrational substrate occupies an open, bounded spectral interval $(\omega_{\min},\omega_{\max})$, ensuring finiteness of total energy and excluding infinitely stable configurations. The substrate evolves under two fundamental and competing tendencies---excitation, which amplifies coherence, and randomization, which scrambles it. Their balance produces a metastable unstructured regime in which rare fluctuations may form long-lived self-consistent spectral configurations. Because the substrate is finite and subject to competing order--disorder dynamics, no coherent configuration can be perpetually stable. We show that the only mechanism capable of sustaining long-lived organization is a replication instability: a coherent unit may reproduce into multiple offspring according to a general $1\!\to n$ rule. Replication consumes energy from the finite substrate, breaks the metastable symmetry, and induces a discrete notion of event time through the replication tick $\Delta\tau$. Temporal succession is defined through correlation ordering of spectral microstates, producing an intrinsic pre-causal structure. The compactness of the spectral domain imposes minimal and maximal timescales, bounds the internal coherence of emergent units, and limits their proliferation. These spectral constraints serve as precursors for the emergence of geometry, adjacency, and a limiting propagation speed, developed in subsequent papers of this series. Paper I provides the foundational axioms (PG1--PG9) governing the spectral substrate, its metastable dynamics, the formation of coherent units, and the necessity of replication, establishing a fully pre-geometric stage from which causal and geometric structure naturally emerge.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Chain Flexibility and Structure of a Polyimide Copolymer: Revisiting the Freely Rotating Chain Model

Poly(4–4′-oxydiphenylene-pyromellitimide)-based polyimides─trade name Kapton─have wide-ranging engineering applications owing to their thermal and mechanical stability, but little is known about underlying chain-level characteristics. While theoretical models have conceptualized Kapton as inflexible polycyclic rods separated by freely rotating diphenyl ether hinge groups, the model’s core predictions remain untested and subtleties of the relaxation behavior are missed, which atomistic modeling can resolve. To these ends, we examine all-atom Kapton structures in crystalline and glassy amorphous configurations using a DFT-validated class II force field. Constructing amorphous configurations is challenging, as the fused-ring-containing backbone has slow relaxation dynamics and scaling suggestive of entanglements even in oligomers. In conclusion, we find larger backbone rearrangements of the linear polycyclic segments about ether groups that are consistent with the rod-hinge picture on the monomer scale, whereas a ring rotation analysis suggests partially flexible rod-like segments and involves multiple facile rotational relaxation modes.

Liesen, Nicholas T. [Lawrence Livermore National L↗

DOE OSTI2024

Hot Springs and Geysers: Exploring Historical and Modern Impacts of Geothermal Energy Production on Associated Natural Surface Systems and Standardizing Management Practices

Surface thermal features, most notably hot springs and geysers are increasingly being recognized for their importance to ecosystems, indigenous cultures, and in some cases agriculture, recreation, and tourism. Geothermal project development poses a potential risk to these natural features but current regulatory requirements for assessing and managing these risks during exploration, permitting and monitoring are somewhat inconsistent and unpredictable across different geothermal fields. This has resulted in uncertainty and increases in exploration risk for geothermal energy developers that have led to costly project delays, cancellations, or hesitation to commit. Varying regulatory requirements may also influence public perception, fostering confusion, distrust and ultimately opposition to geothermal projects, further contributing to project delays or cancellations. At a time when there is an increasing urgency for reliable baseload clean energy, geothermal is a net-zero, renewable solution that additionally provides access to more equitable and environmentally just clean power. Continued integration of geothermal energy into the national energy roadmap can be facilitated through consistent and predictable permitting, providing regulators the framework they need, developers a clear path forward, and transparency that the public deserves. This project, currently in its beginning phases, seeks to address this important issue by providing a technical basis from which to build a preliminary protocol for assessing and managing potential impacts from new or existing geothermal energy projects to surface thermal features and their associated ecosystems. Development of this preliminary protocol will be informed by (1) a literature review of well-documented case studies in the western U.S. and New Zealand to understand the range of conditions that exemplify geothermal-surface thermal systems; (2) development of generic illustrative conceptual-numerical models to quantify, understand, and predict the first-order controls (e.g., pressure and permeability) on surface flows; and (3) additional independent and scientifically rigorous evaluations of geothermal-surface thermal system case studies from the Basin and Range Province that incorporate publicly available data as well as data provided by industry through data-sharing agreements. Learning from the successes of the process used to develop the Induced Seismicity Management Protocol (ISMP), we ultimately aim to use these initial efforts as a springboard for establishing a surface thermal feature management working group that will work collaboratively to finalize the protocol as well as co-create recommended best practices for implementation. We envision that the working group will primarily be composed of representatives from regulatory entities, government agencies, Tribes, academia, national laboratories, and industry, and will include early and regular engagement with community organizations and environmental groups. This will help ensure broad acceptance and implementation of the protocol, which will facilitate a more consistent, predictable, and standardized regulatory process, and help to ensure that geothermal energy continues to provide a reliable source of clean energy, and a pathway to achieving greater energy equity in the U.S.

Best Practices↗

DOE OSTI2025

Energy-efficient multimodal mobility networks in transportation digital twins: Strategies and optimization

The study proposes a comprehensive Transportation Mobility (TransitMo) framework covering conceptual design, model formulation, optimization, simulation, and impact analysis of the transportation mobility system. TransitMo is composed of a transportation digital twin developed in Simulation of Urban MObility (SUMO) and an Intelligent Traffic Management and Control Center (ITMCC) that identifies the best ways to improve the movement of people within urban areas using various modes of transportation. This study encompasses advanced modeling techniques, algorithms, and strategic testing to optimize energy efficiency and mobility in a multimodal shared mobility network. TransitMo’s practical applications are exemplified through a city-scaled simulation network in Chattanooga, TN, employing demographic data to analyze historical traffic patterns and forecast future demands. Central to this methodology are three models: the User Preference Model (UP), the Energy Consumption Model (EC), and the System Optimization Model (SO). These models work in concert to iteratively devise the optimal travel incentives and minimize the total system cost in a real-time manner. In conclusion, test results verified that the proposed adaptive incentive program and optimized bus scheduling can improve network performance by increasing public transit ridership.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2026

Digital Twin Technology for Safety, Security, and Training in Spent Nuclear Fuel Handling

The increasing complexity of spent nuclear fuel handling requires significant resources to ensure safety, security, and personnel training. As nuclear facilities have continued to advance in scale and technology, the integration of digital tools has become indispensable. Among these tools, digital twins, which are virtual models of physical systems, are emerging as invaluable tools for enhancing safety protocols, security measures, and training in the nuclear sector. These models were conceptualized in the Industry 4.0 revolution. Digital twins can process data from physical systems in real time (by using sensors), include multiple code packages to enable simulations of different physics applications, and even implement artificial intelligence or machine learning techniques for advanced data processing. Despite the advantages that digital twins provide, challenges still exist regarding their widespread implementation. For instance, data used by a digital twin must be accurate to ensure that the digital twin is accurately tuned. Furthermore, if insecure digital twins are targeted by hackers, then they can pose serious risks to the security and safety of nuclear facilities.

Digital twins↗