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DOE OSTI2023

Onshore U.S. Carbon Pipeline Deployment: Siting, Safety, and Regulation

Carbon capture, utilization, and storage technology has significant potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impact of climate change, particularly in hard-to-decarbonize industrial and commercial sectors. Unless utilization or storage occurs at the same location as carbon capture, which is rare, carbon must be transported from a point source to a utilization or storage site. Pipelines offer significant advantages for large-scale transportation of carbon dioxide over other methods. While studies show that reaching net-zero carbon emissions in the United States by 2050 will require between 29,000 and 66,000 miles of carbon pipelines, the U.S. had deployed fewer than 6,000 miles of carbon pipelines by 2022. Although closing this gap is important to achieving low-carbon goals, carbon pipelines operate in a complex and uncertain local, state and federal regulatory landscape and face public concerns about safety and siting. This report covers numerous regulatory issues surrounding carbon pipeline development, including the current narrow federal definition of carbon dioxide and the considerable variation in state and local governments’ laws and regulations. The report serves as a primer for regulators and stakeholders who seek to better understand the regulatory challenges and opportunities facing this critical infrastructure

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2025

SF6 / Acetone Separation & Purification

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆) is recognized as the most potent greenhouse gas used in the power transmission and semiconductor sectors. In the past decade, its global emissions have increased sharply, largely due to the absence of effective disposal and recovery pathways. This concern was formally addressed under the Kyoto Protocol, which urged participating nations to adopt measures to limit SF₆ emissions and mitigate its role in climate change. In recent years, various abatement strategies have been explored, including non-thermal plasma (NTP) technologies such as radio frequency, microwave, dielectric barrier discharge, and electron beam systems. While these methods can decompose SF₆, they also produce hazardous by-products like sulfur oxyfluorides, sulfur dioxide, hydrofluoric acid, and fluorine gas. Because these compounds pose both environmental and health risks, replacing traditional disposal practices with modern, more effective treatment methods has become an urgent priority.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Biological response of eelgrass epifauna, Taylor's Sea hare ( Phyllaplysia taylori ) and eelgrass isopod ( Idotea resecata ), to elevated ocean alkalinity

Abstract. Marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR) approaches are under development to mitigate the effects of climate change by sequestering carbon in stable reservoirs, with the potential co-benefit of local reductions in coastal acidification impacts. One such method is ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE). A specific OAE method is the generation of aqueous alkalinity via electrochemistry to enhance the alkalinity of the receiving water by the extraction of acid from seawater, thereby avoiding the issues of solid dissolution kinetics and the release of impurities into the ocean from alkaline minerals. While electrochemical acid extraction is a promising method for increasing the carbon dioxide sequestration potential of the ocean, the biological effects of increasing seawater alkalinity and pH within an OAE project site are relatively unknown. This study aims to address this knowledge gap by testing the effects of increased pH and alkalinity, delivered in the form of aqueous NaOH, on two eelgrass epifauna in the US Pacific Northwest, Taylor's sea hare (Phyllaplysia taylori) and eelgrass isopod (Idotea resecata), chosen for their ecological importance as salmon prey and for their role in eelgrass ecosystems. Four-day experiments were conducted in closed bottles to allow measurements of the evolution of carbonate species throughout the experiment, with water refreshed twice daily to maintain elevated pH, across pHNBS (NBS standard scale) treatments ranging from 7.8 to 9.3. Sea hares experienced mortality in all pH treatments, ranging from 37 % mortality at pHNBS 7.8 to 100 % mortality at pHNBS 9.3. Isopods experienced lower mortality rates in all treatment groups, ranging from 13 % at pHNBS 7.8 to 21 % at pHNBS 9.3, which did not significantly increase with higher pH treatments. These experiments represent an extreme of constant exposure to elevated pH and alkalinity, which should be considered in the context of both the natural variation and the dilution of alkalinity experienced by marine communities across an OAE project site. Different invertebrate species will likely have different responses to increased pH and alkalinity, depending on their physiological vulnerabilities. Investigation of the potential vulnerabilities of local marine species will help inform the decision-making process regarding mCDR planning and permitting.

marine carbon dioxide removal↗

DOE OSTI2020

Hysteretic temperature sensitivity of wetland CH4 fluxes explained by substrate availability and microbial activity: Model Archive

This Modeling Archive is in support of an NGEE Arctic publication "Hysteretic temperature sensitivity of wetland CH4 fluxes explained by substrate availability and microbial activity" in the Journal Biogeosciences (https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5849-2020), which includes the model data used in the publication. CH4 emissions from terrestrial systems are posited to increase, which can offset mitigation efforts and accelerate climate change. Yet, the accuracy of modeled CH4 emissions is sensitive to the prescribed CH4 production (or emission) temperature dependencies that are currently uncertain. Here, we use a comprehensive biogeochemistry model (ecosys) to investigate factors modulating CH4 production and emission rates across a permafrost thaw gradient encompassing a partly thawed bog and a fully thawed fen. We find that seasonally varying substrate availability drives lower and higher modeled methanogen biomass and activity, and thereby CH4 production, during the earlier and later periods of the thawed season, respectively. Package follows the Model data archiving guidelines with data in a *.zip file with three subfolders containing *.csv files and raw model output files; a data dictionary table (data_dictionary.csv) and two model output description tables (ecosys_plantspecies_output_notes.csv and ecosys_soil_ouput_notes.csv) to explain the format and meaning of individual output variables; and a user guide as a *.pdf. A detailed model description can be found in the supplement of (Grant, 2013). The ecosys source code is available at https://doi:10.5281/zenodo.3906642. The Next-Generation Ecosystem Experiments: Arctic (NGEE Arctic), was a research effort to reduce uncertainty in Earth System Models by developing a predictive understanding of carbon-rich Arctic ecosystems and feedbacks to climate. NGEE Arctic was supported by the Department of Energy's Office of Biological and Environmental Research. The NGEE Arctic project had two field research sites: 1) located within the Arctic polygonal tundra coastal region on the Barrow Environmental Observatory (BEO) and the North Slope near Utqiagvik (Barrow), Alaska and 2) multiple areas on the discontinuous permafrost region of the Seward Peninsula north of Nome, Alaska. Through observations, experiments, and synthesis with existing datasets, NGEE Arctic provided an enhanced knowledge base for multi-scale modeling and contributed to improved process representation at global pan-Arctic scales within the Department of Energy's Earth system Model (the Energy Exascale Earth System Model, or E3SM), and specifically within the E3SM Land Model component (ELM).

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Applications of Measuring and Valuing Resilience in Energy Systems

The electricity sector is vulnerable to numerous hazards that are being exacerbated by climate change, which can cause an increase in the hazards' frequency and intensity. Consumers, system regulators, system operators, and communities are now preparing to mitigate the increased risks posed by climate change. New York State's energy infrastructure resilience can be increased with targeted investments including but not limited to installing emergency backup systems, integrating microgrid solutions, weatherizing buildings, increasing energy efficiency, adding redundancy, investing in restoration and recovery, and hardening critical components. Such investments can reduce the likelihood, impact, and consequences of disruptive events but can also increase capital and operating costs. A barrier to prioritizing investments in resilience is that there is no widely established method for quantifying and assigning the benefits of resilience investments across various stakeholders. Decision-makers need better information detailing the value of resilience improvements. Developing methods to quantify, value, and price resilience helps meet resilience needs in an effective manner that also supports broader societal welfare. This report lays out considerations for quantifying and valuing resilience, discusses the current state of resilience valuation tools, and provides case studies of resilience projects that demonstrate how resilience attributes could be measured while highlighting broader, project-specific challenges to increasing resilience. Further, we present insights into methods and challenges to measuring, valuing, and enacting resilience investments.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2024

Climate change and its influence on water systems increases the cost of electricity system decarbonization

The electric sector simultaneously faces two challenges: decarbonization to mitigate, and adaptation to manage, the impacts of climate change. In many regions, these challenges are compounded by an interdependence of electricity and water systems, with water needed for hydropower generation and electricity for water provision. Here, we couple detailed water and electricity system models to evaluate how the Western Interconnection grid can both adapt to climate change and develop carbon-free generation by 2050, while accounting for interactions and climate vulnerabilities of the water sector. We find that by 2050, due to climate change, annual regional electricity use could grow by up to 2% from cooling and water-related electricity demand, while total annual hydropower generation could decrease by up to 23%. To adapt, we show that the region may need to build up to 139 GW of additional generating capacity between 2030 and 2050, equivalent to nearly thrice California's peak demand, and could incur up to $\$$150 billion (+7%) in extra costs.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Weakening aerosol direct radiative effects mitigate climate penalty on Chinese air quality

Future climate change may worsen air quality in many regions. However, evaluations of this ‘climate penalty’ on air quality have typically not assessed the radiative effects of changes in short-lived aerosols. Additionally, China’s clean air goals will decrease pollutant emissions and aerosol loadings, with concomitant weakening of aerosol feedbacks. In this work, we assess how such weakened aerosol direct effects alter the estimates of air pollution and premature mortality in China attributable to mid-century climate change under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5. We found that weakening aerosol direct effects cause boundary layer changes that facilitate diffusion. This reduces air-pollution exposure (~4% in fine particulate matter) and deaths (13,800 people per year), which largely offset the additional deaths caused by greenhouse gas-dominated warming. These results highlight the benefits of reduced pollutant emissions through weakening aerosol direct effects and underline the potential of pollution control measures to mitigate climate penalties locked in by greenhouse gas emissions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Thermal extremes in regulated river systems under climate change: an application to the southeastern U.S. rivers

High river temperatures, or “thermal extremes”, can cause fish mortality and thermoelectric powerplant derating. Under climate change, projected higher air temperature and stronger surface energy fluxes will lead to increased water temperatures, exacerbating thermal extremes. However, cold hypolimnetic releases from thermally stratified reservoirs can depress tailwater temperatures and therefore alleviate thermal extremes. Thermal extremes are more harmful when they coincide with low flows, which we refer to as “hydrologic hot-dry events”. To assess multisectoral impacts of climate change over large regions, we evaluate thermal events according to three impact attributes: duration (D), intensity (I), and severity (S). We apply an established model framework to simulate streamflow and stream temperature over the southeastern US regulated river system. We quantify climate change impacts (by the 2080s under RCP8.5) by comparing historical and future periods and quantify regulation impacts by comparing unregulated and regulated scenarios. We find that climate change will exacerbate thermal extremes (all three metrics) in both unregulated and regulated scenarios, albeit less in the regulated scenario. Thermal mitigation from reservoir regulation will be stronger under climate change, decreasing the three metrics compared to the unregulated case. Even so, thermal extremes in the regulated scenario will still be more severe under climate change, and only 12.2%, 19.7%, and 26.0% of D, I, and S can be mitigated by reservoirs. Despite stronger reservoir stratification, the number of regulated river segments that experience simultaneous high temperature and low flow events (hydrologic hot-dry events) will increase by 21.4% by the 2080s under RCP8.5. These events will have a median annual duration of 10.3 days/year, over 10 times the historical value.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

The 38 th Annual Interdisciplinary Plant Group Symposium: Enhancing the Resilience of Plant Systems to Climate Change (Meeting Summary)

The University of Missouri’s Interdisciplinary Plant Group held its 38th annual symposium on May 25–27. In short, it was a resounding success! The air was almost electric because of a confluence of events that were particular to this symposium. Not only was there great enthusiasm from students attending their first ever scientific meeting, but this was coupled with excitement and delight exuded by many of our senior invited speakers, who were attending their first in-person meeting since the Covid pandemic began. After a long planning period, and with the ongoing pandemic injecting uncertainty, it was gratifying to see the symposium unfold with such excitement and engagement among participants. The symposium was organized to address the grand challenge of “Enhancing the Resilience of Plant System to Climate Change”, by bringing together experts at the intersections of multiple disciplines to educate our community on the opportunities to develop innovative mitigation strategies and to adapt plants to climate change.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change and Its Impacts on Agriculture

Climate change and climate variability drive rapid glacier melt and snowpack loss, extreme precipitation and temperature events, and alteration of water availability in the Himalayas. There is increasing observational evidence of climate change impacts on water resource availability and agricultural productivity in the central Himalayan region. Here, we assess the farmers’ perception of climate change and its impacts on agriculture in western Nepal. We interviewed 554 households and conducted eight focus group discussions to collect farmers’ perceptions of temperature and rainfall characteristics, water availability, onset and duration of different seasons, and the impacts of such changes on their lives and livelihoods. Our results indicate that the farmers’ perceptions of rising annual and summer temperatures are consistent with observations. Perception, however, contradicts observed trends in winter temperature, as well as annual, monsoon, and winter precipitation. In addition, farmers are increasingly facing incidences of extreme events, including rainfall, floods, landslides, and droughts. These hazards often impact agricultural production, reducing household income and exacerbating the economic impacts on subsistence farmers. Integrated assessment of farmers’ perceptions and hydrometeorological observations is crucial to improving climate change impact assessment and informing the design of mitigation and adaptation strategies.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Kicking the can down the road: understanding the effects of delaying the deployment of stratospheric aerosol injection

Abstract Climate change is a prevalent threat, and it is unlikely that current mitigation efforts will be enough to avoid unwanted impacts. One potential option to reduce climate change impacts is the use of stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI). Even if SAI is ultimately deployed, it might be initiated only after some temperature target is exceeded. The consequences of such a delay are assessed herein. This study compares two cases, with the same target global mean temperature of ∼1.5° C above preindustrial, but start dates of 2035 or a ‘delayed’ start in 2045. We make use of simulations in the Community Earth System Model version 2 with the Whole Atmosphere Coupled Chemistry Model version 6 (CESM2-WACCM6), using SAI under the SSP2-4.5 emissions pathway. We find that delaying the start of deployment (relative to the target temperature) necessitates lower net radiative forcing (−30%) and thus larger sulfur dioxide injection rates (+20%), even after surface temperatures converge, to compensate for the extra energy absorbed by the Earth system. Southern hemisphere ozone is higher from 2035 to 2050 in the delayed start scenario, but converges to the same value later in the century. However, many of the surface climate differences between the 2035 and 2045 start simulations appear to be small during the 10–25 years following the delayed SAI start, although longer simulations would be needed to assess any longer-term impacts in this model. In addition, irreversibilities and tipping points that might be triggered during the period of increased warming may not be adequately represented in the model but could change this conclusion in the real world.

Brody, Ezra (ORCID:000900030008681X)↗

DOE OSTI2022

Research needs targeting direct air capture of carbon dioxide: Material & process performance characteristics under realistic environmental conditions

The extraction of CO 2 from ambient air, or direct air capture (DAC), is a crucial negative CO 2 emissions technology with great potential for contributing to the mitigation of global warming and climate change. Furthermore, nearly all published research on DAC has been conducted under indoor temperature conditions, i.e. 20 to 30 °C. In contrast, the future global implementation of DAC requires it to be operational across a wide expanse of geographical areas, of which the local temperatures can vary between -30 to 50 °C. Similarly, the absolute humidity can vary from ~0 to 84 g/m 3 in various locations. Due to the massive amount of air that would be processed, it may be impractical to preheat or dehumidify the air before the CO 2 separation. Therefore, it is important to develop DAC materials with good performance at realistic outdoor conditions, especially at sub-ambient conditions, i.e. -30 to 20 °C. In addition to material development, system-level studies at sub-ambient conditions are also needed for the DAC processes to reach optimal designs, which may be very different from those at ambient conditions. In this perspective article, we first assess the literature to identify the technical gaps that need to be filled for DAC to be applicable at realistic outdoor conditions. We then suggest additional research directions needed for DAC to be viable under varied conditions from the perspectives of materials and system designs. For materials, we discuss the expected physical and chemical property changes for the sorbents when the temperature or humidity reaches extremes within their range, and how that will impact performance. Similarly, for system design, we indicate how varied conditions will impact performance and how these changes will impact process optimization.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Holistic Marine Energy Resource Assessments: A Wave and Offshore Wind Perspective of Metocean Conditions

Offshore wind and wave energy resources are possibly the last significantly untapped renewable energy resource, and could play a significant role in mitigating the worst impacts of climate change via the generation of renewable electricity. However, offshore wind and wave energy resource assessments have been conducted as independent parallel processes, with little interaction with regard to best practices, lessons learnt, or opportunities to create compatible methodologies for future utilization by the broader marine energy sector. Based on the latest technical specifications from the International Electrotechnical Commission, and the highest fidelity publicly available datasets, the offshore wind and wave conditions at the PacWave site off Oregon, USA were quantified. The results clearly show a significant untapped energy resource an annual average wave energy flux of ~35kW/m and a mean average wind speed of 7.8m/s. The offshore wind and wave energy resources both show significant seasonal variation, with offshore wind also featuring a consistent daily profile during summer. Finally, opportunities and challenges associated with developing a holistic assessment of offshore marine energy resources were discussed and recommendations provided.

Robertson, Bryson↗

DOE OSTI2024

Parts-Per-Million Carbonate Mineral Quantification with Thermogravimetric Analysis–Mass Spectrometry

Mitigating the deleterious effects of climate change requires the development and implementation of carbon capture and storage technologies. To expand the monitoring, verification, and reporting (MRV) capabilities of geologic carbon mineralization projects, we developed a thermogravimetric analysis–mass spectrometry (TGA–MS) methodology to enable quantification of <100 ppm calcite (CaCO 3 ) in complex samples. We extended TGA–MS calcite calibration curves to enable a higher measurement resolution and lower limits of quantification for evolved CO 2 from a calcite–corundum mixture. We demonstrated <100 ppm carbonate mineral quantification with TGA–MS for the first time, an outcome applicable across earth, environmental, and materials science fields. We applied this carbonate quantification method to a suite of Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) well cuttings recovered in 2009 from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory’s Wallula #1 Well. Our execution of this new combined calcite and calcite–corundum calibration curve TGA–MS method on our CRBG sample suite indicated average carbonate contents of 0.050 wt % in flow interiors (caprocks) and 0.400 wt % in interflow zones (reservoirs) in the upper 1250 m of the Wallula #1 Well. Finally, by advancing our knowledge of continental flood basalt-hosted carbonates in the mafic subsurface and reaching new TGA–MS quantification limits for carbonate minerals, we expand MRV capabilities and support the commercial-scale deployment of carbon mineralization projects in the Pacific Northwest United States and beyond.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

Direct Laser Writing of Multimetal Bifunctional Catalysts for Overall Water Splitting

Water electrolysis is of interest as a sustainable way to produce clean hydrogen and oxygen fuel and help mitigate the rising problems of climate change while meeting global energy demands. High-efficiency, stable, and earth-abundant bifunctional catalysts are needed to enable more effective electrochemical cells for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Here, we investigate the synthesis, composition, performance, and mechanism of multimetal catalysts serving dual functionality in both OER and HER of water electrolysis. Through a laser synthesis method, we synthesized heterogeneous catalysts of nanocrystalline multimetallic alloy pockets embedded within an amorphous oxide matrix. We evaluated the performance and composition of a range of mixed transition-metal oxide materials for both OER and HER, ultimately synthesizing a Cr 0.01 Fe 0.27 Co 0.34 Ni 0.38 O x /C y catalyst that has a stable, high-rate, and competitive overall water splitting performance of 1.76 V at 100 mA cm –2 in an alkaline medium. Using density functional theory to gain insight as the active site and mechanism, we propose that the inclusion of a minor amount of Cr increases the degeneracy of energetic states that lowers the cost of forming the O 2 p–d bond and H 1 s–d bond due to the hybridization of s, p, and d orbitals from Cr. Using a two-electrode water electrolysis cell with a constant potential of 1.636 V to mimic the setup for fuel production, we found the catalyst to be stable at 14–15 mA cm –2 for 40 h. Furthermore, this laser synthesis method allowing for facile and rapid synthesis of complex multimetal systems demonstrates how doping a Fe, Co, and Ni heterogeneous amorphous/nanocrystalline structure with small amounts of Cr is important for bifunctional catalytic behavior, particularly for increasing HER functionality in advancing our understanding for future electrocatalytic design.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

Analysis of bipolar membranes for electrochemical CO 2 capture from air and oceanwater

Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) must be removed from the atmosphere to mitigate the negative effects of climate change. However, the most scalable methods for removing CO 2 from the air require heat from fossil-fuel combustion to produce pure CO 2 and continuously regenerate the sorbent. Bipolar-membrane electrodialysis (BPM-ED) is a promising technology that uses renewable electricity to dissociate water into acid and base to regenerate bicarbonate-based CO 2 capture solutions, such as those used in chemical loops of direct-air-capture (DAC) processes, and in direct-ocean capture (DOC) to promote atmospheric CO 2 drawdown via decarbonization of the shallow ocean. In this study, we develop an experimentally validated 1D model for the electrochemical regeneration of CO 2 from bicarbonate-based carbon capture solutions and seawater using BPM-ED. For DAC, our experimental and computational results demonstrate that pH swings induced by BPM water dissociation drive the formation of CO 2 at the cation-exchange layer|catholyte interface with energy-intensities of less than 150 kJ mol -1 . However, high rates of bubble formation increase energy intensity at current densities >100 mA cm -2 . Correspondingly, accelerating water dissociation catalysis and enacting bubble removal could enable CO 2 recovery at energy intensities <100 kJ mol -1 and current densities >100 mA cm -2 . For DOC, mass transport limitations associated with low carbon concentrations in oceanwater suggest that DOC is best suited for clean production of acid and base usable in downstream processes. Further, these results provide design principles for industrial-scale CO 2 recovery using BPM-ED.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

The good, the bad, and the future: Systematic review identifies best use of biomass to meet air quality and climate policies in California

Abstract California has large and diverse biomass resources and provides a pertinent example of how biomass use is changing and needs to change, in the face of climate mitigation policies. As in other areas of the world, California needs to optimize its use of biomass and waste to meet environmental and socioeconomic objectives. We used a systematic review to assess biomass use pathways in California and the associated impacts on climate and air quality. Biomass uses included the production of renewable fuels, electricity, biochar, compost, and other marketable products. For those biomass use pathways recently developed, information is available on the effects—usually beneficial—on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and there is some, but less, published information on the effects on criteria pollutants. Our review identifies 34 biomass use pathways with beneficial impacts on either GHG or pollutant emissions, or both—the “good.” These included combustion of forest biomass for power and conversion of livestock‐associated biomass to biogas by anaerobic digestion. The review identified 13 biomass use pathways with adverse impacts on GHG emissions, criteria pollutant emissions, or both—the “bad.” Wildfires are an example of one out of eight pathways which were found to be bad for both climate and air quality, while only two biomass use pathways reduced GHG emissions relative to an identified counterfactual but had adverse air quality impacts. Issues of high interest for the “future” included land management to reduce fire risk, future policies for the dairy industries, and full life‐cycle analysis of biomass production and use.

Agriculture↗

DOE OSTI2022

Materials for electrification of everything: Moving toward sustainability

We report society is at a unique tipping point in a move from conventional fossil fuel based technologies to renewable sourced electrified technologies which can enable creating a carbon neutral or carbon negative energy economy. Many of the key approaches to achieving this transition in the critical areas of transportation, buildings and manufacturing depend on new materials and new approaches to rapidly increase electrification. This article reviews the overall energy landscape and highlights specific areas where new materials are critical to enabling transitions in energy storage, hydrogen utilization, transportation, buildings and the chemical industry and the articles on these topics that follow. How these transitions can be best integrated and the global societal impact of these transitions is also discussed. The development of new materials is instrumental in accelerating the move to a cleaner electrified society. The "electrification of everything" is increasingly important if we are to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and materials will play a critical role realizing this goal.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗