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DOE OSTI · 3376041

Next-generation anodes for high-energy and low-cost sodium-ion batteries

Zuo, Wenhua [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:0000000319772775)·Liu, Zaichun [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Stanford University, CA (United States)]·Dopilka, Andrew [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)]·Yang, Ziqi [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of Wisconsin−Madison, WI (United States)]·Li, Yuqi [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Stanford University, CA (United States)] (ORCID:0000000315011549)·Kubal, Joseph [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)]·Kim, Haegyeom [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)]·Liu, Fang [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of Wisconsin−Madison, WI (United States)]·Liu, Ping [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA (United States)]·Ngo, Anh T. [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of Illinois at Chicago, IL (United States)]·Weker, Johanna Nelson [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC), Menlo Park, CA (United States)] (ORCID:0000000168563203)·Chen, Zonghai [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:0000000153719463)·Kostecki, Robert [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)]·Wulf-Knoerzer, Julie [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)]·Srinivasan, Venkat [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)]·Cui, Yi [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Stanford University, CA (United States); SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC), Menlo Park, CA (United States)] (ORCID:0000000261036352)·Amine, Khalil [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:0000000192063719)·Xu, Gui-Liang [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:000000019969883X)
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Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) are increasingly becoming commercially viable alternatives to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), driven by sodium’s lower cost and greater resource availability. However, current NIB technology still falls short of established LIB systems, such as those based on LiFePO 4 , in both cost efficiency and energy density. Although since the early 2020s, industrial advances have raised NIB energy densities to around 175 Wh kg −1 , performance remains limited by the relatively low specific capacity (typically 200–350 mAh g −1 ) and low tap density (0.3–1.0 g cm −3 ) of the prevailing hard carbon anodes. This Review analyses emerging anode materials that could unlock higher-energy and lower-cost NIBs, with a focus on high-capacity hard carbon and alloy-based systems. We discuss the latest progress, fundamental challenges and future directions in these anode materials across the key themes of electrode design, structure–property engineering and characterization. Here, by offering forward-looking insights into the rational design and optimization of anode materials, this Review aims to accelerate the research and development of commercially viable NIBs and support the broader advancement of energy storage technologies.

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Zuo, Wenhua [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:0000000319772775), Liu, Zaichun [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Stanford University, CA (United States)], Dopilka, Andrew [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)], Yang, Ziqi [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of Wisconsin−Madison, WI (United States)], Li, Yuqi [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Stanford University, CA (United States)] (ORCID:0000000315011549), Kubal, Joseph [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)], Kim, Haegyeom [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)], Liu, Fang [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of Wisconsin−Madison, WI (United States)], Liu, Ping [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA (United States)], Ngo, Anh T. [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); University of Illinois at Chicago, IL (United States)], Weker, Johanna Nelson [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC), Menlo Park, CA (United States)] (ORCID:0000000168563203), Chen, Zonghai [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:0000000153719463), Kostecki, Robert [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)], Wulf-Knoerzer, Julie [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)], Srinivasan, Venkat [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)], Cui, Yi [Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States); Stanford University, CA (United States); SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC), Menlo Park, CA (United States)] (ORCID:0000000261036352), Amine, Khalil [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:0000000192063719), Xu, Gui-Liang [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Low-cost and Earth-abundant Na-ion Storage (LENS) Consortium, Lemont, IL (United States)] (ORCID:000000019969883X). 2026-01-27. Next-generation anodes for high-energy and low-cost sodium-ion batteries. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-025-00857-4

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