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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Recent Advances in 3D Printed Sensors: Materials, Design, and Manufacturing

Sensors are of great importance in different aspects of research and industry. Future sensors will require high-efficient and low-cost manufacturing, as well as high-performance functionality in areas, such as mechanical sensing, biomedical, and optical applications. Recent advances in 3D printing open a new paradigm for sensors fabrication as a precision, customizable, and seamless process. Here, in this article, the state-of-the-art 3D printing methods in sensors manufacturing is reviewed and the performance of the 3D printed sensing materials and devices is summarized. Special attention is paid to emerging multimaterial printing and 4D printing technologies, which will benefit the fabrication of a new generation of structures with multifunctionalities. The content on 3D printed sensors covers piezoelectric sensors, medical, and optical sensing devices. The performance of 3D printed sensors in comparison with the sensors made by traditional manufacturing is also covered. Finally, section 4 provides the viewpoints on the future development of 3D printed sensors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Temperature Dependence of Band Gap Renormalization in High-T Sensor Materials via First-Principles and Experimental Corroboration

Understanding the temperature dependence of functional properties of high-T gas sensing materials is vital for their applications in combustion environments. The electron-phonon coupling that derives the electronic structure change with temperatures is a key property of interest as it affects other sensing responses. Herein, we assess the temperature dependence of band gap renormalization in metal oxides and perovskites by employing Allen-Heine-Cardona theory with first-principles simulations and corroborate with experimental observation. The calculated temperature-dependent band gap changes of these materials studied are in good agreement with in-house experimental data, proving that the theory can adequately predict renormalization on the band gap in the system of interest. The predicted and measured band gap variations are characterized using an analytical model, which can provide useful insights on the simulated zero-temperature band gaps. Based on the available data, a set of 53 metal oxides and perovskites were identified as potential high-T gas sensors. A machine learning model has been developed to predict the band-gap change by capturing the overall trend of the empirical parameters with respect to a reduced feature obtained by transforming the set of available physical features.

Park, Jongwoo↗
DOE OSTI2025

High-Temperature Gas Sensor Materials with Properties Predicted via First-Principles Calculations with Machine Learning Modeling and Experimental Corroboration

Understanding the temperature dependence of functional properties of sensing materials is vital for their applications in combustion environments. The electron-phonon coupling that derives the electronic structure change with temperatures is a key property of interest as it affects other sensing responses. Herein, we first assess the temperature dependence of band gap renormalization in sensing materials by employing Allen-Heine-Cardona (AHC) theory with density functional theory (DFT) simulations corroborated with experimental observation. As the AHC calculations are impractical for high-throughput screening of materials, we employ data-driven Gaussian process regression to predict the parameters employed in the O’Donnell empirical model from a set of physical features. To mitigate the reliability issues arising from the small size of the dataset, we apply a Bayesian technique to improve the generalizability of the data-driven models as well as to quantify the uncertainty associated with theoretical predictions. These models capture well the overall trend of the O’Donnell parameters with respect to a reduced feature set obtained by transforming the available physical features. Quantifying the associated uncertainty helps us understand the reliability of the predictions and, therefore, the variation of bandgap as a function of temperature for other novel materials. The predicted candidates from machine learning models are further validated by experiments and DFT calculations.

bandgap renormalization↗
DOE OSTI2020

Surface-Mediated Interconnections of Nanoparticles in Cellulosic Fibrous Materials toward 3D Sensors

Fibrous materials serve as an intriguing class of 3D materials to meet the growing demands for flexible, foldable, biocompatible, biodegradable, dis- posable, inexpensive, and wearable sensors and the rising desires for higher sensitivity, greater miniaturization, lower cost, and better wearability. The use of such materials for the creation of a fibrous sensor substrate that interfaces with a sensing film in 3D with the transducing electronics is however difficult by conventional photolithographic methods. Here, a highly effective pathway featuring surface-mediated interconnection (SMI) of metal nanoclusters (NCs) and nanoparticles (NPs) in fibrous materials at ambient conditions is demon- strated for fabricating fibrous sensor substrates or platforms. Bimodally distrib- uted gold–copper alloy NCs and NPs are used as a model system to demonstrate the semiconductive-to-metallic conductivity transition, quantized capacitive charging, and anisotropic conductivity characteristics. Upon coupling SMI of NCs/NPs as electrically conductive microelectrodes and surface-mediated assembly (SMA) of the NCs/NPs as chemically sensitive interfaces, the resulting fibrous chemiresistors function as sensitive and selective sensors for gaseous and vaporous analytes. Finally, this new SMI–SMA strategy has significant implications for manufacturing high-performance fibrous platforms to meet the growing demands of the advanced multifunctional sensors and biosensors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Corrosion proxy material integrated sensor devices for distributed sensing of early corrosion onset and corrosion quantification

Embodiments relate to methods, systems and apparatus for detecting corrosion using a detector apparatus with a host component. The method includes a detector apparatus. The detector apparatus includes an energy source; a corrosion proxy thin film that corrodes at a rate where the normalized change of mass of the film over time is greater than the normalized change of mass of the bulk material of the host component in a harsh environment; and the detector, wherein the detector is capable of detecting a change in energy due to corrosion of the corrosion proxy thin film. The method includes exposing the host component and the corrosion proxy thin film to the harsh environment; and detecting a change in energy using the detector due to corrosion of the corrosion proxy thin film.

Ohodnicki, Jr., Paul R.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhanced electronic sensors

A micro-structured device that can improve sensitivity and signal-to-noise for electronic sensor materials is embedded in electrically resistive materials. The technology includes a three-dimensional embedded electrode structure and fabrication methods for making the device for electronic sensing in bulk resistive materials. Embedded electrode structures address issues in conventional sensors by allowing independent control of sensitive material thickness, area, electric field intensity, and field direction.

Doty, Fred Patrick↗
DOE OSTI2021

Performance of Embedded Sensors in 3D Printed SiC

This report summarizes recent advances in embedding sensors in 3D printed silicon carbide (SiC) ceramic components under the Transformational Challenge Reactor (TCR) program. The additive manufacturing technologies developed under this program will enable fabrication of complex structures with embedded fuels and sensors. The sensors will be capable of characterizing fuel performance using spatially distributed measurements at the most strategic locations that would be otherwise inaccessible using conventional manufacturing techniques. While previous programmatic updates describe initial concepts for embedding sensors, materials selection, and initial characterization of the embedded sensors, the technology requires further demonstration, and quality-significant procedures must be established before the embedding technology is ready for adoption by industry. To this end, this report describes the most effective techniques that have been used to embed functional sensors in 3D printed components using a combination of binder-jet additive manufacturing and chemical vapor infiltration (CVI). A detailed procedure describes each step in the process and is available upon request. Molybdenum (Mo)-sheathed thermocouples have been successfully embedded in complex SiC components, and temperatures were monitored in situ during the embedding process. Post-embedding measurements showed no significant hysteresis, and characterization of the interface revealed qualitatively strong bonding around the entire perimeter of the sensor sheath. Distributed fiber-optic temperature sensors were able to briefly measure temperature profiles during CVI, but they ultimately failed prior to completion of the CVI run. The failure appears to be related to the fiber coating at temperatures close to 1,000°C. Future work will focus on irradiation testing of embedded thermocouples and other sheathed electrical sensors, as well as the identification of fiber-optic sensor coatings that can survive CVI.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Embedded Fiber Optic Sensors in Structural Materials for Sensing in Extreme Environments

This slide deck presents the research results in embedding fiber optic sensors in structural materials. Fiber optic sensors were embedded in stainless steel and nickel via electric field assisted sintering. The embedded sensors were evaluated in terms of fiber integrity, fiber-matrix bonding, fiber functionality, mechanical properties, and machinability.

36 - MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Functional metal–organic frameworks as effective sensors of gases and volatile compounds

Developing efficient sensor materials with superior performance for selective, fast and sensitive detection of gases and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is essential for human health and environmental protection, through monitoring indoor and outdoor air pollutions, managing industrial processes, controlling food quality and assisting early diagnosis of diseases. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are a unique type of crystalline and porous solid material constructed from metal nodes (metal ions or clusters) and functional organic ligands. They have been investigated extensively for possible use as high performance sensors for the detection of many different gases and VOCs in recent years, due to their large surface area, tunable pore size, functionalizable sites and intriguing properties, such as electrical conductivity, magnetism, ferroelectricity, luminescence and chromism. The high porosity of MOFs allows them to interact strongly with various analytes, including gases and VOCs, thus resulting in easily measurable responses to different physicochemical parameters. Although much of the recent work on MOF-based luminescent sensors have been summarized in several excellent reviews (up to 2018), a comprehensive overview of these materials for sensing gases and VOCs based on chemiresistive, magnetic, ferroelectric, and colorimertic mechanisms is missing. In this review, we highlight the most recent progress in developing MOF sensing and switching materials with an emphasis on sensing mechanisms based on electricity, magnetism, ferroelectricity and chromism. We provide a comprehensive analysis on the MOF–analyte interactions in these processes, which play a key role in the sensing performance of the MOF-based sensors and switches. We discuss in detail possible applications of MOF-based sensing and switching materials in detecting oxygen, water vapor, toxic industrial gases (such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide, carbon oxides and carbon disulfide) and VOCs (such as aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, ketones, alcohols, aldehydes, chlorinated hydrocarbons and N,N'-dimethylformamide). Altogether, this review serves as a timely source of information and provides insight for the future development of advanced MOF materials as next-generation gas and VOC sensors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Development, construction and tests of the Mu2e electromagnetic calorimeter mechanical structures

The “muon-to-electron conversion” (Mu2e) experiment at Fermilab will search for the charged lepton flavour violating neutrino-less coherent conversion of a muon into an electron in the field of an aluminum nucleus. The observation of this process would be the unambiguous evidence of the existence of physics beyond the standard model. Mu2e detectors comprise a straw-tracker, an electromagnetic calorimeter and an external veto for cosmic rays. In particular, the calorimeter provides excellent electron identification, a fast calorimetric online trigger, and complementary information to aid pattern recognition and track reconstruction. The detector has been designed as a state-of-the-art crystal calorimeter and employs 1348 pure Cesium Iodide (CsI) crystals readout by UV-extended silicon photosensors and fast front-end and digitization electronics. A design consisting of two identical annular matrices (named “disks”) positioned at the relative distance of 70 cm downstream the aluminum target along the muon beamline satisfies the Mu2e physics requirements. The hostile Mu2e operational conditions, in terms of radiation levels (total expected ionizing dose of 12 krad and a neutron fluence of 5 × 10$^{10}$ n/cm$^{2}$ @ 1 MeV$_{eq}$ (Si)/y), magnetic field intensity (1 T) and vacuum level (10$^{-4}$ Torr) have posed tight constraints on scintillating materials, sensors, electronics and on the design of the detector mechanical structures and material choice. The support structure of each 674 crystal matrix is composed of an aluminum hollow ring and parts made of open-cell vacuum-compatible carbon fiber. The photosensors and front-end electronics for the readout of each crystal are inserted in a machined copper holder and make a unique mechanical unit. The resulting 674 mechanical units are supported by a machined plate of vacuum-compatible plastic material. The plate also integrates the cooling system made of a network of copper lines flowing a low temperature radiation-hard fluid and placed in thermal contact with the copper holders to constitute a low resistance thermal bridge. The data acquisition electronics are hosted in aluminum custom crates positioned on the external lateral surface of the disks. The crates also integrate the electronics cooling system as lines running in parallel to the front-end system. In this paper we report on the calorimeter mechanical structure design, the mechanical and thermal simulations that have determined the design technological choices, and the status of component production, quality assurance tests and plans for assembly at Fermilab.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Characterizing novel Indium Phosphide pad detectors with focused X-ray beams and laboratory tests

Future tracking systems in High Energy Physics experiments will require large instrumented areas with low radiation length. Crystalline silicon sensors have been used in tracking systems for decades, but are difficult to manufacture and costly to produce for large areas. We are exploring alternative sensor materials that are amenable to fast fabrication techniques used for thin film devices. Indium Phosphide pad sensors were fabricated at Argonne National Lab using commercially available InP:Fe 2-inch mono-crystal substrates. Current-voltage and capacitance-voltage characterizations were performed to study the basic operating characteristics of a group of sensors. Micro-focused X-ray beams at Canadian Light Source and Diamond Light Source were used to study the response to ionizing radiation, and characterize the uniformity of the response for several devices. Electrical test results showed a high degree of performance uniformity between the 48 tested devices. X-ray test beam results showed good performance uniformity within tested devices after accounting for spatially-local defects and edge fields. As a result, this motivates further studies into thin film devices for future tracking detectors.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Materials for Gamma Radiation Sensors

Sensors used for spectroscopic measurements of gamma radiation are most often scintillator or semiconductor materials. An overview is provided in this chapter on the materials and development techniques used in producing spectroscopic gamma radiation sensors. Challenges that prevent a perfect sensor are discussed along with the reasons why some sensor materials are ubiquitous despite their performance limitations. The types of sensors commonly used as detectors are discussed along with their key physical properties and electronic characteristics. Materials commonly utilized in radiation detectors are then reviewed to highlight how sensor materials have advanced since the earliest gamma detectors were developed

Johns, Paul M.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Characterizing electron-collecting CdTe for use in a 77 ns burst-rate imager

The Keck-PAD (pixel array detector) was developed at Cornell as a burst-rate imager capable of recording images from successive electron bunches (153 ns period) from the Advanced Photon Source (APS). Both Si and hole-collecting Schottky CdTe have been successfully bonded to this ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit) and used with this frame rate. The facility upgrades at the APS will lower the bunch period to 77 ns, which will require modifications to the Keck-PAD electronics to image properly at this reduced period. In addition, operation at high X-ray energies will require a different sensor material having a shorter charge collection time. For the target energy of 40 keV for this project, simulations have shown that electron-collecting CdTe should allow >90% charge collection within 35 ns. This collection time will be sufficient to sample the signal from one frame and prepare for the next. 750 µm-thick electron-collecting Schottky CdTe has been obtained from Acrorad and bonded to two different charge-integrating ASICs developed at Cornell, the Keck-PAD and the CU-APS-PAD. Carrier mobility has been investigated using the detector response to single X-ray bunches at the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source and to a pulsed optical laser. The tests indicate that the collection time will meet the requirements for 77 ns imaging.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Charge collection efficiency of diamond and silicon sensors irradiated with alpha particles

To evaluate the viability of using semiconductors as sensor materials in a detector for the Associated Particle Imaging technique, the radiation hardness of silicon and diamond diodes to alpha particles has been assessed. Here, the detector lifetimes for both silicon and diamond sensors were measured under the prolonged exposure to alpha particles emitted by an 241 Am source. The silicon detector was exposed to alpha radiation for approximately two months, reaching an accumulated fluence of ~ 1.5 x 10 12 α cm –2 . Additionally, by using a high purity single-crystal diamond with coplanar electrodes operating with full charge collection, the diamond detector response was measured over approximately ten months reaching an accumulated fluence of over 6 x 10 12 α cm –2 cm.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Magnetostrictive materials for enhanced sensors and electronic components

Magnetostriction is a property of magnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions proportional to their magnetization. Low-cost, mechanically robust magnetostrictive sensors would be valuable for a wide range of applications across the DOE and national security mission space, such as monitoring the internal conditions of pipelines, rapidly detecting high-impedance faults in power lines (e.g. trees touching power lines), or enhancing implantable systems for the human body. Dilute doping (<1 at.%) of rare earth elements (REE) has been shown to amplify the magnetostriction. Furthermore, alloy processing by rapid cooling from high temperature tends to result in texturing and therefore greater magnetostriction values, which bodes well for developing advanced manufacturing approaches significantly less expensive than single crystal growth. The goal of this effort was to develop robust, low-cost magnetostrictive materials compatible with advanced manufacturing techniques to exploit the rapid cooling of these approaches while retaining the ability to produce fully dense structures. To be useful as a sensor or actuator the coercivity of the material needs to be minimized so that there is minimal magnetic hysteresis. Employing a small scale laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) system, specimens of Fe-Ga-Ce were built from alloy powder which had a magnetostriction of 289 ppm along the build direction and 197 ppm perpendicular to the build direction. These values are not far from the 310-350 ppm observed in single crystals of Fe-Ga. The results of the series of samples run suggest this is a very promising route for REE doping to higher levels, especially if the powders can be produced using far from equilibrium approaches such as ultrasonic atomization. The promising results from applying additive manufacturing techniques to these materials, particularly the inexpensive Fe-Al system, has potential for inexpensive high-performing magnetostrictive parts producible at large scales for low-cost sensors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

In Situ Synthesis of Molybdenum Carbide Nanoparticles Incorporated into Laser‐Patterned Nitrogen‐Doped Carbon for Room Temperature VOC Sensing

Abstract Carbon laser‐patterning (CLaP) is emerging as a new tool for the precise and selective synthesis of functional carbon‐based materials for on‐chip applications. The aim of this work is to demonstrate the applicability of laser‐patterned nitrogen‐doped carbon (LP‐NC) for resistive gas‐sensing applications. Films of pre‐carbonized organic nanoparticles on polyethylenetherephthalate are carbonized with a CO 2 ‐laser. Upon laser‐irradiation a compositional and morphological gradient in the films is generated with a carbon content of 92% near the top surface. The specific surface areas of the LP‐NC are increased by introducing sodium iodide (NaI) as a porogen. Electronic conductivity and surface area measurements corroborate the deeper penetration of the laser‐energy into the film in the presence of NaI. Furthermore, impregnation of LP‐NC with MoC 1− x (<10 nm) nanoparticles is achieved by addition of ammonium heptamolybdate into the precursor film. The resulting doping‐sensitive nano‐grain boundaries between p‐type carbon and metallic MoC 1− x lead to an improvement of the volatile organic compounds sensing response of Δ R / R 0 = −3.7% or −0.8% for 1250 ppm acetone or 900 ppm toluene at room temperature, respectively, which is competitive with carbon‐based sensor materials. Further advances in sensitivity and in situ functionalization are expected to make CLaP a useful method for printing selective sensor arrays.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗