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DOE OSTI2025

Mixed Element Microparticle Characterization by Electron Probe Microanalysis

Abstract Microparticle compositional characterization for nuclear forensics has traditionally been achieved by “gold-standard” destructive analytical techniques such as large geometry-secondary ion mass spectrometry and fission track-thermal ionization mass spectrometry, but long processing times and total sample consumption eliminate the option of subsequent analysis by other methods. Electron probe microanalysis has long been widely employed for rapid, nondestructive, micrometer-scale compositional measurements and imaging in fields such as material science and geology and may therefore need to be reevaluated as an alternative tool for microparticle analysis for the nuclear forensics community. This study presents the use of electron probe microanalysis for imaging and quantitative characterization of homogeneous microparticles utilizing a calibration curve based on high-precision quadrupole-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry analyses. Samples of opportunity synthesized at Savannah River National Laboratory, nickel-doped cerium oxide microparticles, were selected as analogs for plutonium-doped uranium oxide microparticles. Positive detection and accurate quantification of variable amounts of nickel dopant down to trace levels (10s of parts per million) suggest applicability of this technique to other mixed element systems (e.g., actinides). Quantitative single-particle characterization via electron probe microanalyzer may thus provide a high fidelity, nondestructive complement to techniques currently in use.

Riche, Alexis T. (ORCID:0009000121978126)↗

DOE OSTI2024

Exploring constituent redistribution in irradiated U-19Pu-14Zr fuel via electron probe microanalysis

Here, the phenomena of constituent redistribution, wherein a previously homogeneous metallic fuel forms discrete, radially concentric compositional zones upon irradiation was investigated by examining an irradiated U-19Pu-14Zr fuel (where numbers represent wt. %) with a burnup of 11.5 at.% with electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and quadruple inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (Q-ICP-MS). EPMA-generated U, Pu, and Zr compositional data obtained from a diameter traverse of the sample was converted to mass and was used to: 1) compare the overall fuel element analysis results between the two methods, 2) determine the number of compositionally distinct zones forming as a result of constituent redistribution; and 3) quantify the post-irradiation loss or gain of U, Pu, and Zr atoms in each distinct compositional zone. Weight percent concentrations of U, Pu, and Zr for the overall cross section compare favorably between the two analytical methods, suggesting that the spatially resolved EPMA analysis complements bulk chemical analysis. Among the four identified compositional zones, post-irradiation quantification of U, Pu, and Zr elemental atom content changes shows that the quantity of U atoms lost from the innermost zone is slightly less than the quantity of U atoms gained by the middle two zones, and the quantity of Zr atoms lost from the high-U third zone is slightly less than is gained by the two innermost zones. Pu is lost from all four zones, although the innermost zone and the high-U third zone lose a significantly higher percentage (> 22 %) of their initial Pu atoms than the other two zones. For all three elements, EPMA cannot distinguish between atoms lost due to transport to a different zone from atoms lost due to nuclear processes; however, the insight gained from using this process can be used to experiment with new modeling techniques to predict constituent redistribution in U-Pu-Zr fuels.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Investigation of N in Ammonium-bearing Silicates with Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA)

Nitrogen is a primary constituent of Earth’s atmosphere and an essential component of many biological processes. Recent developments in understanding N incorporation into silicate minerals suggest that the solid earth and lithosphere could provide a substantial reservoir for the planetary N budget. Furthermore, determining the concentration and distribution of low abundances of N in silicates presents a significant challenge in microanalysis. We tested capabilities for high spatial resolution quantification of low levels of N using EPMA with the goal of developing standards to be used in coupled N and noble gas analyses of silicate minerals. We investigated the concentration and distribution of N in a suite of ammonium-bearing silicate minerals that reflect the dominant N-bearing phases of the lithosphere: tobelite, buddingtonite, ammonioleucite, tsaregorodtsevite, and hyalophane. These minerals form during NH4-rich alteration of K-bearing silicate minerals, and the bonding environment of N in each mineral is likely to differ based on crystal structure. Using an optimized analytical routine for N quantification enables sensitivity approaching 0.02 weight% N and high-resolution quantitative mapping of sub-micron variations in N contents.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Precise Compositional Characterization of Plutonium Alloys by Electron Probe Microanalysis

Key Takeaway Points: • Unlike most other materials, the precise compositional analysis of plutonium, including compounds and alloys, is riddled by numerous difficulties that are unique to the element, including the high atomic number and radioactive nature. There’s work to be done! • Radioactive materials require special handling to ensure precise compositions can be measured by EPMA. • Mean Atomic Number background corrections are limited due to high average atomic number. • Mass Absorption Coefficients are unknown for most light elements. Quantification relies upon calibration curves. • Principal Component Analysis could be a useful tool to improve interpretation of complicated, multiple element X-ray maps.

Maner, IV, James L.↗

DOE OSTI2026

Plutonium migration and phase evolution in irradiated U-Pu-Zr metallic fuels: An integrated EPMA-SEM-TEM study

Constituent redistribution is a defining feature of irradiated U-Pu-Zr metallic fuels, yet its mechanisms and effects on fuel performance are not sufficiently resolved to guide model development. Although decades of irradiation testing have established broad trends, a true mechanistic understanding of constituent redistribution has not been achieved. Here, in this study, we use electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy-based (TEM) selective area electron diffraction (SAED) on a EBR-II irradiated U-19 wt.% Pu-6 wt.% Zr fuel pin cross-section to correlate the composition, porosity, and crystallographic phases formed after irradiation. Constituent redistribution is thought to consist of three distinct zones, in which uranium and zirconium migrate while plutonium remains relatively unchanged. Our EPMA results resolve eight distinct compositional regions, and more importantly, show that plutonium redistributes alongside zirconium, contrary to historical assumptions. The distribution of fission products was highly asymmetric with a few large lanthanide precipitates observed at isolated sites on the pin periphery instead of a uniform distribution of smaller precipitates around the periphery. Using thermodynamic data from TAF-ID and the measured EPMA compositions, matrix phase fractions were predicted across the fuel radius. Phase predictions based on composition did not match TEM/SAED results, which revealed a much higher fraction of α−U phase than would be expected if phases were retained from reactor temperatures. These findings highlight the need for expanded SAED phase identification to capture post-irradiation and storage effects, as well as rigorous uncertainty quantification in fuel performance and phase diagram modeling to better constrain predictions from compositional data.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Internal carburization and scale formation on austenitic steels in supercritical carbon dioxide

Direct-fired supercritical CO 2 (sCO 2 ) power cycles are being commercialised to revolutionise fossil energy as a low-emission power source. In order to lower the cost of this technology, less expensive steels are needed in the lower temperature segments of the cycle. However, there are concerns about internal carburisation of steels in sCO 2 . A consistent observation is that thin, Cr-rich oxides appear to reduce C ingress compared to thick Fe-rich oxides formed on 9–12% Cr ferritic-martensitic steels. Advanced austenitic stainless steels (SS) like alloy 709 (20Cr-25Ni) are able to continue to form Cr-rich oxides at 650°C, while a conventional type 316 H SS formed a Fe-rich scale. The C diffusion profiles in SS specimens were quantified at 550°C–650°C using glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy and electron probe microanalysis. Analytical transmission electron microscopy was used to compare the thin protective Cr-rich oxide formed on alloy 709 in sCO 2 at 650°C to that formed in ambient air.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Effects of Al:Si and (Al + Na):Si ratios on the properties of the international simple glass, part I: Physical properties

Understanding composition-structure-property relationships of high-alumina nuclear waste glasses are important for vitrification of nuclear waste at the Hanford Site. Two series of glasses were designed, one with varying Al:Si ratios and the other with (Al+Na):Si ratios based on the International Simple Glass (ISG, a simplified nuclear waste model glass), with Al2O3 ranging from 0 to 23 mol % (0 to 32 wt. %). The glasses were synthesized and characterized using electron probe microanalysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, small angle X-ray scattering, high temperature oxide melt solution calorimetry, and infrared spectroscopy. Glasses were crystal free, and the lowest Na2O and Al2O3 glass formed an immiscible glass phase. Evolution of various properties - glass transition temperature, percentage of 4-coordinated B, enthalpy of glass formation - and infrared spectroscopy results indicate that structural effects differ based on the glass series.

Nuclear Waste Glass↗

DOE OSTI2021

Editors’ Choice—Necessity to Avoid Titanium Oxide as Electrocatalyst Support in PEM Fuel Cells: A Membrane Durability Study

Pt/TiO 2 as electrocatalyst was found to significantly increase the rate of the membrane chemical degradation in a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell. The increased degradation was proved to be due to TiO x (TiO 2 or Ti 4 O 7 ), which is widely recognized as a promising corrosion-resistant electrocatalyst support. The membrane degradation (thinning) appears to be preferentially in the side facing anode electrode. Migrated Ti species as a result of TiO x dissolution during fuel cell operation in an acidic environment was quantified by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). Total fluorine inventory loss of the membrane strongly depends on the quantity of migrated Ti species (likely Ti 3+ and/or Ti 4+ ). The membrane chemical degradation induced by TiO x is proposed to be due to dissolved ionic Ti species reacting with H 2 O 2 through a Fenton reaction. TiO x is determined to be inviable as electrocatalyst support for PEM fuel cells, and future research is suggested to be directed toward alternative oxides with similar corrosion-resistance.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2025

Microstructure characteristics of LPBF&HIP fabricated graded composite transition joint between ferritic steel and austenitic stainless steel

Graded composite transition joints (GCTJs) offer a promising alternative to conventional dissimilar metal welds (DMWs) by enabling smooth compositional and microstructural transitions. However, GCTJs fabricated solely through additive manufacturing (AM) face challenges such as heat accumulation, complex parameter control, and elemental segregation. In this study, we propose a novel approach that relies on AM to design a spatially graded structure in one alloy and then employs hot isostatic pressing (HIP) as a diffusion bonding method to join it with a second alloy. Here, this method combines the flexibility of AM with the powder net-shaping advantage of HIP. Specifically, a series of closely packed austenitic stainless steel 304 conical structures were printed using laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and then combined with ferritic steel P91 powder via HIP. By using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques, the microstructure characteristics of the GCTJ of 304&P91, especially the interdiffusion zone (IDZ), have been systematically investigated. The microstructure at the interface transitions from austenite-ferrite (A+F) to austenite-martensite-ferrite (A+M+F), and finally to martensite-ferrite (M+F) due to diffusion. Additionally, the diffusion width between 304 and P91 increases with the volume fraction of P91. This unique design also ensures a gradual transition in both hardness and thermal expansion coefficient from 304 to P91, thereby enabling a smooth gradient in functional properties. Overall, this study proposes a novel approach for fabricating GCTJs and contributes to advancing design concepts in the field of dissimilar metal joining.

Additively manufacturing (AM)↗

DOE OSTI2021

Fission product distribution in irradiated safety-tested and as-irradiated AGR-2 TRISO particles

In this work, two tristructural isotropic (TRISO)-coated nuclear fuel particles were examined by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) as part of the Advanced Gas Reactor program. The compacts’ average irradiation temperatures ranged from approximately 1260 to 1290 °C. One particle was examined in the as-irradiated condition, while the other was subject to 1600 °C post-irradiation safety testing. This study was undertaken to test a newly-developed EPMA technique to determine fission product masses in TRISO particles on a layer-by-layer basis, and to compare fission product distributions between an as-irradiated and safety-tested particle. Fission product concentration profiles were collected along two radii in each particle, with measured concentrations used to compute the fission product mass in each TRISO particle layer. These measured masses were then compared to those predicted from ORIGEN modeling calculations. Data collected from these measurements show that for these two particles, masses determined via EPMA were within ± 20% of the calculated masses for the rare-earth elements, Mo, Zr, Cs, I, and Pd. Elements that tend to be less homogeneously distributed include Sr, Te, Eu, Ag, and possibly Ba. Measured Ag masses differed by more than 40% from the calculated mass. Lanthanides other than Eu remain primarily within the fuel kernel in the as-irradiated particle but in the safety-tested particle these element masses were divided approximately equally between the kernel and kernel periphery. In both particles, the majority of Sr and Eu accumulated in the carbon-rich kernel periphery, although in the safety-tested particle, Sr and Eu accumulated farther from the fuel kernel than occurred with irradiation alone. A greater mass fraction of mobile elements, such as Cs and I accumulated in the buffer and IPyC in the safety-tested particle as compared to the as-irradiated particle. When fully developed and tested, this mass balance approach to TRISO particle analysis has the potential to provide insight into fuel behavior.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Thermal Conductivity Degradation in High Burnup U-Pu-Zr Fuel

Recent advancements in the characterization of irradiated U-Pu-Zr fuels have revealed complexities that challenge existing understanding of constituent redistribution. Traditionally, models have proposed three concentric regions within the fuel, each characterized by distinctive phases and porosity. However, through detailed analysis of high burnup U-Pu-Zr, we discovered the presence of four distinct constituent redistribution regions. Particularly novel is the observation of significant Pu redistribution, a previously unreported phenomenon that necessitates a reevaluation of current models. This work aims to delve deeper into these findings, seeking to correlate mesoscale measurements of thermal diffusivity and respective thermal conductivity with the phases present in each redistribution region. To achieve this objective, we employed mesoscale thermoreflectance methods using the unique, Idaho National Laboratory (INL) developed, Thermal Conductivity Microscope (TCM) at INL’s Irradiated Materials Characterization Laboratory. The TCM employs two tightly focused lasers: one for heating to generate periodic thermal waves in the substrate, and another spatially separated probe laser to detect changes in the optical reflectivity of the gold-coated substrate resulting from thermal wave diffusion. We conducted several thermal diffusivity measurements within each region of constituent redistribution of a U-19Pu-10Zr fuel pin cross section irradiated to 11 at. % burnup. The TCM measurement positions strategically aligned with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) lift-out locations previously collected from the fuel sample. Complementary microstructural analysis techniques such as optical and scanning electron microscopy (OM/SEM), electron probe microanalysis for chemical compositions, and TEM-based selective area electron diffraction (SAED) analysis for crystallographic insights into each phase were also utilized. This comprehensive approach allowed us to correlate local thermal diffusivity data with microstructural characteristics, enabling the computation of local thermal conductivity at each position. The significance of this contribution lies in its pioneering use of the TCM for ternary fuel mesoscale examination, shedding light on the previously overlooked effects of Pu redistribution on local thermal conductivity. By informing current models capturing constituent redistribution and heat transfer, our findings pave the way for more accurate predictions of metallic fuel performance. Moreover, this work sets the stage for future comparisons with similar TCM examinations on U-19Pu-10Zr fuels at ultra-low burnup, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of thermal property changes across different burnup levels. Ultimately, our study not only enriches our understanding of the thermophysical properties of individual redistribution regions within U-Pu-Zr fuel but also offers valuable insights for the design and operational parameters of proposed next-generation fast reactors.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Effects of composition and growth parameters on phase formation in multicomponent aluminum garnet crystals

The effects of composition on the phase formation of multicomponent garnet crystals grown via directional solidification by the micro-pulling-down method are studied. A relatively wide range of rare-earth (RE) average ionic radii (AIR) is explored by formulating ten compositions from the system (Lu,Y,Ho,Dy,Tb,Gd) 3 Al 5 O 12 . Crystals were grown at either 0.05 or 0.20 mm min -1 . The hypothesis is that multicomponent compounds with large AIR will form secondary phases as the single-RE aluminum garnets formed by larger Tb 3+ or Gd 3+ ; this will result in crystals of poor optical quality. Crystals with large AIR have a central opaque region in optical microscopy images, which is responsible for their reduced transparency compared to crystals with small AIR. Slow pulling rates suppress the formation of the opaque region in crystals with intermediate AIR. Powder and single-crystal X-ray diffraction and electron probe microanalysis results indicate that the opaque region is a perovskite phase. Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy measurements reveal eutectic inclusions at the outer surface of the crystals. Finally, the concentration of the eutectic inclusions increases with increasing AIR.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Crystal Growth and Phase Formation of High-Entropy Rare-Earth Aluminum Perovskites

In this work, we demonstrate for the first time the crystal growth of high-entropy rare-earth (RE) aluminum perovskites (REAlO 3 ) using the micro-pulling-down method to inform future exploration of functional crystals. To determine how composition affects phase formation, we formulate equiatomic compositions containing five REs from the following list: Lu, Yb, Tm, Er, Y, Ho, Dy, Tb, Gd, Eu, Sm, Nd, Pr, Ce, La. To test whether combinations of REs with similar ionic radii may favor a single phase, compositions containing REs with consecutive or nonconsecutive ionic radius values were formulated. Powder and single-crystal X-ray diffraction indicate that crystals containing only REs with similar ionic radii that form orthorhombic single-RE REAlO 3 are a single phase. Crystals containing REs with dissimilar ionic radii or mixtures of REs that form orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal single-RE REAlO 3 are a mixture of phases. The elemental distribution in single-phase crystals analyzed via electron probe microanalysis confirms no evidence of preferential incorporation of any of the constituent REs. The distribution and composition of secondary phases were analyzed via scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy; secondary phases were seen as a small region in the center of the crystals with branching features closer to the outer surface.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Structural and Electronic Properties of Indium-Doped n-type Cd-Se-Te Crystals

Here, we present a comprehensive investigation into the potential of n-type indium-doped cadmium selenide telluride (CST:In) as a high-performance candidate for solar cell applications, without the need for resource-intensive post-growth treatments that are required for CdTe:In. We compared undoped CST and CST:In crystals under different growth conditions, analyzing their structural and electronic properties using x-ray diffraction (XRD), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), current-voltage (IV) and Hall effect measurements, time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL), optical transmission, and photoluminescence (PL) mapping. The results reveal that as-grown CST:In crystals achieve nearly 100% carrier activation, yielding an electron concentration of 9.5x1018 cm -3 , mobility of 653 cm 2 /V.s and a 5 ns lifetime which approaches the radiative limit. Furthermore, comparison of PL maps from crystal growths having different cooling profiles suggests a strong effect of cooling rate on selenium segregation and cubic/hexagonal/polytype phase distribution. Slower cooling leads to a more homogeneous cubic structure with lower Se segregation, while a faster cooling rate results in increased Se segregation, and twin boundaries and stacking faults with polytypic and hexagonal character.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Czochralski growth and characterization of the multicomponent garnet (Lu 1/4 Yb 1/4 Y 1/4 Gd 1/4 ) 3 Al 5 O 12

This work demonstrates the potential for practical scalable growth of complex garnets and evaluates the implications of a multicomponent composition in the optical quality and elemental distribution of a Czochralski-grown crystal. Furthermore, our experimental approach was designed to elucidate the relation between a complex garnet composition ( Lu 1 / 4 Yb 1 / 4 Y 1 / 4 Gd 1 / 4 ) 3 Al 5 O 12 , crystal growth parameters, crystal structural, and elemental homogeneity. Our hypothesis is that combining multiple rare earths (REs) that will fractionally occupy the dodecahedral site in the aluminum garnet structure will result in a stable, single garnet compound that can be grown by the Czochralski method. Single-crystal and powder x-ray diffraction indicated a single garnet phase with an increasing unit cell volume from seed to tail. In addition, we propose that the pattern of elemental segregation will be based on the deviation of the ionic radius of each constituent RE from the average RE ionic radius of the multicomponent garnet. Electron probe microanalysis revealed that ions that are smaller than that average ( Lu 3 + and Yb 3 + ) are preferentially incorporated in the crystal, while elements that are larger than that average ( Gd 3 + ) are rejected. The ionic radius of Y 3 + is close to that average and yttrium segregation was minimal. The concentrations of the four REs are closer to stoichiometric on the tail end of the boule. Scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy analysis reveal Gd-rich inclusions with eutectic microstructures in the tail end of the boule.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Effects of Al Substitution for Fe in Na₅FeSi₄O₁₂ (5.1.8) Glasses: Structure and Crystallization

In this study, the effects of substituting Al for Fe in 5Na2O∙(Al2O3)x∙(Fe2O3)1-x∙8SiO2 glass, x=0 to 1, and Na5AlxFe1-xSi4O12 (5.1.8) crystal, were investigated using thermal analysis, Fe K-edge X-ray absorption, X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and Electron Probe Microanalysis. In both glass and crystallized glass, nearly all the Fe was tetrahedrally coordinated Fe3+, as expected from the high concentration of Na2O. The substitution of Al for Fe in the glasses caused the glass transition temperature to increase as polymerization increased, as evidenced by Raman, likely due to both field strength differences of Al vs Fe and a small amount of Fe2+ network modifier present with Fe. After heat treatment at 700 °C for 24 hours, the glasses had crystallized, forming Na2SiO3 and NaAlSiO4 in compositions with high Al concentrations and the 5.1.8 crystal in compositions with high Fe concentrations. Through electron microprobe, it was determined that <0.04 formula unit Al incorporated into the 5.1.8 crystal, i.e. Na5Fe0.96Al0.04Si4O12. The 5.1.8 crystal only formed when Fe concentration was higher than Al in the starting glass.

Antonio, Raine (ORCID:0009000634297975)↗

DOE OSTI2024

UN-SiC TRISO Post Irradiation Examination Developmental Work

As part of efforts to strengthen INL?s post irradiation analysis capabilities with non-Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) tristructural isotropic (TRISO) fuels, two developmental activities were conducted. The first activity was to determine how best to analyze uranium nitride TRISO fuel kernels using electron probe microanalysis, while the second activity focused on developing a method to deconsolidate TRISO fuel particles that have been encased in a silicon carbide matrix. Because these two activities were unrelated, they have been presented separately in this report. Initial EPMA analyses showed nitrogen contents that far exceeded the concentration expected for UN--a line compound. Further examination showed that current literature values for the mass absorption coefficient (MAC) for the N ka X-ray absorbed by U ranged from approximately 1600 to 9500, with most values tending toward 9500. Measuring UN with five different progressively increasing accelerating voltages followed by using the modeling program xMAC suggests the actual MAC is approximately 2115. Additional MAC modifications were required to produce reasonable analytical results. Because of the inaccuracies of necessary MAC coefficients, UN analysis via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is likely to produce inaccurate results. This is because SEM software does not typically allow the user to alter MACs. Tests have been performed to examine the feasibility of an electrochemical technique to liberate irradiated TRISO fuel from a SiC matrix without damaging the outer pyrolytic carbon layer of the fuel particle. The method is performed by electrochemically exposing the SiC to magnesium metal forming Mg2Si and C. Following exposure, the small SiC samples showed slight mass increases with no evidence of conversion to Mg2Si and C nor obvious degradation of the SiC samples.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Metal alloy microparticle tagging of UO 2 fuel pellets for nuclear forensics

A tagging strategy for UO 2 fuel pellets will be discussed which involves the creation of alloyed metal microparticles that can be tuned to create a unique identification (“barcode”) indicating provenance of the pellets. These specialized markers would contain high temperature resistant materials, such as Ti, Mo, and Cr, in small quantities such that they do not interfere with the performance of the pellets but are recoverable by standard analytical techniques. The Amazemet rePowder ultrasonic atomization system was used to manufacture the microparticles, and sample pellets were fabricated and sintered containing these dopants. Various techniques, such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA), were used to evaluate these sample pellets to determine if particles (and their alloy compositions) were recoverable. Details on how the particles were manufactured and characterized will be detailed, as well as results from their incorporation into test pellets. Next steps will involve the scale of this technique using more conventional mass production methods, as well as the implementation of other alloys.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗