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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Sparsely Dispersed CeO x ‑Stabilized Pt Nanoparticles Overcome Pt Loading–Durability Trade-Off for Highly Durable Heavy-Duty Fuel Cells

Proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are clean and sustainable mobile power sources for transportation. Recently, their deployment in heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) has attracted growing interest owing to their high energy scalability and lower infrastructure requirements. However, to meet the stringent requirements for efficiency and long-term durability for HDV applications, PEMFCs typically employ a relatively high platinum group metal (PGM) loading (>0.2 mg PGM /cm 2 ). This elevated PGM loading significantly increases the stack and system costs, surpassing the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) target of $\$ 60$/kW for commercial viability. Reducing PGM loading while maintaining performance and durability remains a central challenge for HDV fuel cells. Here we exploit metal oxide–Pt interactions and utilize the strong CeO x –Pt interaction to design a CeO x @Pt catalyst structure with exceptional durability. At a low total PGM loading (0.1 mg PGM /cm 2 ), the CeO x @Pt/C catalyst demonstrates high fuel cell performance (8.8 kW/g PGM ) and stability (power retention >90%) after the challenging HDV durability testing (90,000 accelerated-stress-test cycles). With the CeO x @Pt/C catalyst, we showcase over 70% reduction in Pt cost from the M2FCT target (to $\$ 9$/kW), highlighting its promising potential for enabling stable and cost-effective fuel cell systems for heavy-duty applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Ion-Exchange Membrane-Centric Durability Testing and Degradation Characterization for Industry-Relevant CO 2 Reduction

Electrochemical CO 2 reduction is a promising conversion process for producing value-added fuels and chemicals from electricity and CO 2 as a sustainable carbon feedstock to domestically produce fuels and chemicals from industrial waste. Having reached industrially viable performance metrics with small-scale CO 2 electrolysis cells, the field must now increasingly focus on extending the device durability of large stacks to achieve equivalent metrics for 35,000+ hours to decrease maintenance and capital costs. Reported device lifetimes have increased in recent years, with the longest stability studies for CO, ethylene, and formic acid production being published in 2024–2025 with operation times of 4500, 1000, and 5200 h, respectively. Unfortunately, significant extension of the device durability is still required. Here, we provide an overview of ion-exchange membranes (IEMs) and provide insight into the variety of degradation mechanisms that must be overcome to enable the community to meet durability targets. In an effort to accelerate the extension of device lifetimes, we propose a general approach for characterizing CO 2 electrolysis cell degradation before and after durability testing to better elucidate the mechanisms and failure modes of IEMs in zero-gap cells. Furthermore, we encourage the adoption of operando characterizations in tandem with accelerated stress and durability tests, postulating that their combined applications will be increasingly valuable. We hope that this perspective motivates future durability studies to evaluate degradation across the entire electrolysis cell.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Updating the Building Science Advisor (BSA): A Tool to Assist in the Design of Durable Building Envelopes

Predicting the moisture durability of building envelope components remains challenging due to multiple influencing factors, including material selection, assembly positioning, local climate conditions, air tightness, interior environment, and construction quality. Building codes increasingly emphasize energy efficiency through enhanced insulation and tighter envelopes but offer limited guidance on moisture durability considerations. Consequently, builders face uncertainty, particularly as new materials and assemblies enter the market.The Building Science Advisor (BSA) is a free, web-based expert system developed to address these challenges by providing actionable insights into the moisture durability and energy efficiency of both new and retrofit wall designs. Recently updated, we are now providing version 3.0 of the tool. BSA features significant user interface improvements, enhancing navigation and user interaction through a refreshed, intuitive design. Additionally, the tool incorporates a newly developed database containing pre-simulated wall assembly cases, significantly reducing response times and improving the accuracy of moisture durability assessments. Furthermore, the updated BSA includes moisture content as a performance criterion, providing users with a more comprehensive understanding of moisture-related durability risks. These enhancements enable rapid, reliable assessments tailored to specific climate zones and local building practices. BSA continues to offer targeted guidance on wall retrofit scenarios and delivers access to an expanded library of location-specific building science resources.This paper describes these key updates, highlighting the enhanced features, expanded capabilities, and overall improvements to user experience and educational content. The paper includes a demonstration that illustrates how the revised BSA effectively supports practitioners in designing durable, energy-efficient building envelope assemblies.

Salonvaara, Mikael [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000318991554)↗
DOE OSTI2026

Nonenergy Biomass Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS): Assessing Durability of Nongaseous Carbon Products Across Terrestrial Storage Fates

Biomass Carbon Removal and Storage, or BiCRS, pathways use plants or algae that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and store it underground or in long-lived products. While some BiCRS approaches generate an energy product, all BiCRS approaches generate a carbon product. A new subset of BiCRS approaches focus on the storage of these raw or converted carbon products for generation of carbon credits. However, the durability of these approaches is highly variable as carbon products vary widely in their “form” and the conditions of their “fate.” We organize our thinking about carbon products and their durability around these two primary axes. The durability of carbon product “forms” is mediated by chemical recalcitrance and ranges substantially across agricultural residues, municipal solid waste, woody biomass, and nongaseous products of thermochemical conversion (e.g., biochars and bio-oils). Meanwhile, terrestrial storage “fates” vary in the mechanism employed to stall decay, including surface storage, dry storage, shallow anoxic storage, and deep or geologic anoxic storage (or injection). Each mechanism has different implications for suitability with different feedstock forms as well as long-term risks. We present a framework for assessing durability of solid or liquid raw and conversion carbon products under terrestrial storage fates, highlighting knowns, unknowns, and research priorities moving forward.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Photoelectrode Durability in Two- versus Three-Electrode Configurations: Understanding the Impact of Circuit Configuration on Water-Splitting Stability

Device durability remains a significant challenge in photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting under ambient conditions. Yet, a lack of understanding of the test configuration and applied bias effects continue to hinder progress. In this study, we differentiate two-electrode (2E) and three-electrode (3E) configurations for evaluating PEC material durability, focusing particularly on their impacts on photoabsorber solid-state operating conditions. Our results underscore the fallacy of inferring 2E device stability from durability measurements performed solely in 3E configurations. Unmeasured and often misunderstood total circuit bias in 3E tests moderates material degradation, leading to the overestimation of photoelectrode stability compared to short-circuit operation. We demonstrate how the photoabsorber's operating voltage critically governs charge separation, surface stability, and degradation mechanisms during PEC operation. With these findings, we propose a standardized framework for conducting more reliable 3E durability experiments that simulate unassisted performance to help accelerate the development of robust, stable materials for solar-driven water splitting.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Adsorption-Engineered Hydrocarbon Ionomers for Durable Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Reducing reliance on perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells requires hydrocarbon ionomers that combine high performance with long-term durability, a persistent challenge in catalyst-layer design. Here, we identify oxidation-driven ionomer-catalyst interfacial degradation as a dominant failure pathway in hydrocarbon ionomer-bonded cathodes and introduce an adsorption-engineering strategy to overcome this limitation. The comparison of a commercial sulfonated poly(phenylene) (Pemion) with structurally engineered sulfonated poly(fluorene)s demonstrated that electrode durability is governed by the interplay between ionomer adsorption strength and resistance to oxidative degradation on carbon-supported Pt catalysts. A poly(fluorene) ionomer with mobile alkyl sulfonic acid groups forms resilient interfaces, delivering 1.28 A cm−2 at 0.65 V under fully humidified H2/air conditions (80°C and 150 kPaabs), comparable to Pemion. After 90,000 accelerated potential cycles, the poly(fluorene)-bonded cathode exhibits significantly improved durability, with only 29% performance loss compared to 58% for Pemion; further molecular refinement reduces the loss to 17%, approaching that of Nafion-bonded cathodes (14%). These findings establish adsorption-engineered ionomer design that decouples interfacial anchoring from oxidative degradation as a general strategy for achieving durable, high-performance PFAS-free PEM fuel cell electrodes.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Enhancing durability and activity toward oxygen evolution reaction using single-site Re-doped NiFeO x catalysts at ampere-level

NiFeO x materials are known as among the most active catalysts toward oxygen evolution reaction (OER) for hydrogen generation in alkaline media. Nevertheless, the long-term durability of NiFeO x catalysts for OER is still too far to the industrial application. Herein, we prepared a NiFeReO x catalyst with single-site Re dopants and observed that the single-site Re dopants could significantly enhance the durability without compromising the activity. A cell voltage of 1.82 V without iR correction is noted at the current density of 3000 mA cm –2 in anion-exchange membrane water electrolyzer (AEMWE) with NiFeReO x catalyst, and a very small degradation is observed under 2000 and 1000 mA cm –2 , which remarkably outperforms the pristine NiFeO x . Additionally, the overpotential of 305 mV at 10 mA cm –2 is achieved with the NiFeReO x catalyst, which is lower than 50 mV compared with the pristine NiFeO x catalyst, together with a smaller Tafel slope of 54.3 mV dec -1 . The boosted OER durability and activity of the NiFeReO x catalyst could be attributed to the strong electron-withdrawing property of Re 7+ single atoms leading to the electronic structure optimization and stabilization of Ni/Fe active sites. Our insights propose a new path for designing NiFeO x catalysts with high durability and activity toward OER.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

The Impact of Membrane Inactive Area on the Durability of Pt-Co Catalyst

Platinum (Pt) is the most active catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction; however, its activity still requires a significant increase to meet the demands of practical applications. To enhance the catalytic activity, alloy catalysts like platinum-cobalt (Pt-Co), are being extensively investigated. However, Co leaching from the Pt-Co alloy remains a significant concern. Evaluating the durability of Pt-Co alloy catalyst is further complicated by variations in Co leaching, which affects both the observed performance and durability. This variability often arises from an overlooked factor: choice of the inactive area of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) used during the evaluation. This study examines the critical role of membrane inactive area on the performance loss observed during durability testing of Pt-Co alloys. Our findings indicate that a large membrane inactive area reduces the impact of Co leaching on performance and durability, up to 200 mA cm −2 difference in performance is observed between large and small inactive area MEA at 0.7 V for dry conditions, and more Co is retained in the active area of MEA for smaller inactive areas which is responsible for larger performance losses.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Machine Learning-Driven Optimization of Building Enclosures for Moisture Durability and Thermal Performance

The design of moisture-durable building enclosures with low embodied carbon often involves an iterative process of selecting the materials for the specific exposure conditions to meet the performance requirements. While hygrothermal simulations are commonly used to evaluate moisture durability, they often require advanced expertise for proper implementation. Machine learning (ML) provides a promising alternative by streamlining the design process and minimizing the reliance on complex simulations. This study presents a machine learning-based approach for predicting moisture durability in residential wall assemblies. The ML model was trained to estimate the mold index and maximum moisture content of various layers under typical exposure conditions. The model achieved a high predictive accuracy, with a coefficient of determination (R²) exceeding 0.90 when compared to traditional hygrothermal simulations on materials that were not part of training the ML model. Building on these results, the ML model was developed into a practical tool for optimizing wall assembly designs. This tool allows users to automatically optimize material selections based on energy, moisture, and carbon performance criteria. By incorporating multi-objective optimization, the tool identifies configurations that minimize embodied carbon while maintaining moisture safety and code-compliant thermal performance. Additionally, it provides insights into how material choices influence assembly durability, energy efficiency, and carbon reduction. The tool will be implemented in the Building Science Advisor (BSA) to enhance its performance and provide more granularity on the results. This research highlights the potential for ML-driven tools to simplify the design of high-performance building enclosures, offering architects and engineers a faster, more efficient way to balance critical performance factors.

Salonvaara, Mikael [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000318991554)↗
DOE OSTI2024

Cooperative Atomically Dispersed Fe–N 4 and Sn–N x Moieties for Durable and More Active Oxygen Electroreduction in Fuel Cells

One grand challenge for deploying porous carbons with embedded metal–nitrogen–carbon (M–N–C) moieties as platinum group metal (PGM)-free electrocatalysts in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells is their fast degradation and inferior activity. Here, we report the modulation of the local environment at Fe–N 4 sites via the application of atomic Sn–N x sites for simultaneously improved durability and activity. We discovered that Sn–N x sites not only promote the formation of the more stable D2 FeN 4 C 10 sites but also invoke a unique D3 SnN x –Fe II N 4 site that is characterized by having atomically dispersed bridged Sn–N x and Fe–N 4 . This new D3 site exhibits significantly improved stability against demetalation and several times higher turnover frequency for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) due to the shift of the reaction pathway from a single-site associative mechanism to a dual-site dissociative mechanism with the adjacent Sn site facilitating a lower overpotential cleavage of the O–O bond. This mechanism bypasses the formation of the otherwise inevitable intermediate that is responsible for demetalation, where two hydroxyl intermediates bind to one Fe site. Lastly, a mesoporous Fe/Sn-PNC catalyst exhibits a positively shifted ORR half-wave potential and more than 50% lower peroxide formation. This, in combination with the stable D3 site and enriched D2 Fe sites, significantly enhanced the catalyst’s durability as demonstrated in membrane electrode assemblies using complementary accelerated durability testing protocols.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Studying the Durability of Molybdenum Carbide Aerogel as an Electrocatalyst Support for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Carbon-supported platinum nanoparticles (Pt/C) are currently the state-of-the-art catalyst in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Unfortunately, the carbon support lacks the ability to stabilize the metal catalyst, as platinum tends to dissolve and agglomerate, significantly compromising the durability. Herein, we synthesized a ceramic material, molybdenum carbide aerogel (MCAG), and utilized it as a Pt support for PEMFCs, as an alternative for conventional carbon supports. N 2 adsorption and XRD analysis showed that the MCAG possesses a combination of high porosity and a well-defined ceramic crystalline structure. The Pt/MCAG system was studied for its electrocatalytic activity toward ORR in a half-cell and demonstrated satisfactory reaction kinetics and electrochemical active surface area, comparable to the commercial Pt/C. For durability examination, an accelerated stress test (AST) in a single cell was conducted with the Pt/MCAG catalyst at the cathode, following the U.S. DOE electrocatalyst AST protocol. Intermediate polarization curves and cyclic voltammograms were recorded over the course of the AST to monitor the aging process. The results indicated that the MCAG support exhibited superior durability in long-term fuel cell operation compared to a carbon support. The Pt/MCAG system demonstrated stable behavior during the progressive stages of the AST, retaining more than 50% of its initial performance by the end of the test, whereas carbon-supported Pt preserved only 30%.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Tailoring the structural durability and proton conductivity of electrolytes for highly fuel-flexible and reversible ceramic cells

A durable and high ionic conducting electrolyte is critical for achieving fuel-flexible and reversible protonic ceramic cells (PCCs) at reduced temperatures since the developed electrolyte materials are vulnerable to steam, CO 2 , or coking deterioration. Here, we report a fast-conducting electrolyte material BaZr 0.06 Ce 0.7 Y 0.06 Yb 0.06 Hf 0.06 Gd 0.06 O 3−δ (BZCYYbHG), demonstrating excellent durability against CO 2 and H 2 O under the realistic electrolysis operations, and a high conductivity of 0.017 S cm −1 at 550 °C for lowering the PCC operating temperature. Further, density functional theory calculations indicate that the higher configurational entropy of mixing at the B-site cations slightly reduces the hydrogen adsorption energy, suggesting a higher incorporation rate of protons or hydrogen atoms into the electrolyte bulk. Ultimately, single cells with the BZCYYbHG electrolyte deliver peak power densities of 1.39, 1.12, and 0.7 W cm −2 in H 2 , NH 3 , and wet CH 4 at 550 °C with promising durability. In addition, the PCCs achieve a current density of −1.61 A cm −2 at 1.3 V and 550 °C with a high faradaic efficiency of 91.3% at −0.5 A cm −2 , enabling stable operations in steam electrolysis mode under humid air (30% H 2 O), wet air containing CO 2 (up to 10%), and reversible cycling.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Sequential Stress Identifies Processing Defects in Bifacial Photovoltaic Modules That Limit Durability

Here, we use sequential stress to investigate hurdles to bifacial photovoltaic (PV) module durability from lamination defects. We test mini-modules with glass/glass (G/G) and glass/transparent-backsheet (G/TB) constructions using either ethylene vinyl acetate or polyolefin elastomer (POE) based encapsulants under a modified IEC 63209-2 sequential stress. This sequence includes multiple iterations of damp heat (DH200), full spectrum light exposure (A3), thermal cycling (TC50), and humidity/freeze (HF10). We compare indoor stress with outdoor exposure. Results show similar relative trends in degradation after a year outdoors compared to our first stress cycle. Subsequent stress cycles impart more severe damage than outdoor exposure for the short outdoor duration used here. Edge-pinch lamination defects in G/G mini-modules limit durability causing delamination and cell cracks. Conversely, we observe greater degradation in G/TB mini-modules compared to G/G in the later stages of the stress sequence when the backsheets are directly exposed to UV-containing light. Our results highlight: 1) the utility of sequential stress testing to uncover degradation modes in bifacial PV, 2) implications of using mini-modules for testing PV quality, and 3) the importance of lamination defects that must be avoided to ensure durability as the industry adopts G/G or G/TB packaging.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Lessons from the IEC Durability of Adhesion Accelerated Test Sequence

The IEC 62788-1-1 and IEC 63209-2 standards use aging sequences for durability of adhesion in photovoltaic (PV) modules, which may be evaluated using the single cantilever beam (SCB) test. Because the encapsulant forms critical interfaces with the front glass and solar cells, degradation at those interfaces under ultraviolet (UV) exposure, elevated temperature, and humidity can lead to interfacial delamination - compromising the long-term reliability. In this work, adhesion durability of UV-transmitting poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVA) encapsulant to glass and to silicon solar cells is evaluated after sequenced UV and damp heat aging (85C/85%RH). Laminates were prepared using StarPhire solar front glass with thin glass or PERC cells, and two EVA formulations with different concentrations of siloxane coupling agent. Adhesion was quantified by measuring critical debond energy using the SCB method. Both formulations exhibit similar qualitative trends, while different adhesion is observed at the periphery despite the use of low-shrink manufacturing. The results show that while glass/EVA adhesion remains stable or increases after UV exposure and shows only moderate changes after damp heat, the EVA/cell interface exhibits an irreversible loss of adhesion following UV and then damp heat exposure. Although glass/EVA interfaces generally exhibit lower debond energies, the EVA/cell interface is significantly more vulnerable to UV-driven degradation, identifying it as the dominant reliability risk location through early- and intermediate-module life. These results demonstrate that accelerated aging sequences can expose large, interface-specific losses in adhesion durability and underscore the importance of interface engineering for long-term PV module reliability.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Durable Thin‐Film Porous Transport Electrodes for High Current Density PEM Water Electrolysis

Proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers rely on relatively expensive Ir-based catalysts for efficient and durable hydrogen production. To reduce system costs, Ir loadings can be reduced if performance and durability are maintained. Sputter deposition is a readily scalable method to synthesize uniform, low-loading catalyst layers with controlled composition. A catalyst applied directly to the porous transport layer can have advantages for performance, manufacturing simplicity, and catalyst recovery. Suitable porous transport layer porosity can minimize activity losses when reducing loadings. Here, methods are presented to deposit metallic Ir as well as amorphous and rutile Ir oxides. The activity and durability of these materials in the porous transport electrode architecture is evaluated. The metallic and amorphous forms have better initial activity, however, operation at 3 A cm −2 with 0.1 mg Ir cm −2 shows that only rutile IrO 2 maintains performance beyond 100 h with a 50 mV improvement after 700 h. A >10x reduced dissolution rate is shown for rutile IrO 2 . With a low-porosity transport layer and 0.4 mg Ir cm −2 , a steady-state voltage decay rate of 6 µV h −1 is achieved. The results demonstrate that sputter-deposited rutile IrO 2 porous transport electrodes with low Ir loading can be operated at high current density to reduce hydrogen production costs.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Revealing the Crystalline Architecture of Semicrystalline Ion Exchange Membranes for the Design of Conductive and Durable Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes

Alkaline anion exchange membrane (AAEM) fuel cells offer a cost-effective alternative to proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells by eliminating the need for expensive precious metal catalysts. In both PEMs and AAEMs, semicrystalline polymers are a common choice, as the crystalline domains can act as mechanical reinforcements that limit swelling and promote mechanical durability in the material. However, spatially resolved characterization of crystalline organization in ion exchange membranes beyond ensemble-averaged X-ray scattering is underrepresented, likely in part due to ionization damage limitations in soft materials. Here, in this study, we resolve the nanometer-size crystallites in semicrystalline ion exchange membranes by applying cryogenic four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (cryo-4D-STEM) along with data-processing algorithms designed to optimize signals at a low dose to minimize radiation damage. We investigate the effects of synthesis components, including molecular weight and thermal treatment, on a model system of AAEMs in comparison to Nafion, the most commonly used and commercially successful PEM today. We find that excess water uptake in polymer membranes, a property directly associated with weak mechanical durability and with possible negative impacts on ion conductivity, can be reduced by over 30% by varying the polymer's crystalline morphology through changes in synthesis parameters such as molecular weight and thermal history. Our results indicate that this improvement is correlated with smaller crystalline domains with a more homogeneous distribution. More broadly, these results demonstrate how the crystalline architecture of polymer membranes can be tuned through their chemistry and thermal treatment in order to improve their conductivity and durability for commercial fuel cell performance.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Enhancing surface activity and durability in triple conducting electrode for protonic ceramic electrochemical cells

With the material system operating at lower temperatures, protonic ceramic electrochemical cells (PCECs) can offer high energy efficiency and reliable performance for both power generation and hydrogen production, making them a promising technology for reversible energy cycling. However, PCEC faces technical challenges, particularly regarding electrode activity and durability under high current density operations. To address these challenges, we introduce a nano-architecture oxygen electrode characterized by high porosity and triple conductivity, designed to enhance catalytic activity and interfacial stability through a self-assembly approach, while maintaining scalability. Electrochemical cells incorporating this advanced electrode demonstrate robust performance, achieving a peak power density of 1.50 W cm −2 at 600 °C in fuel cell mode and a current density of 5.04 A cm −2 at 1.60 V in electrolysis mode, with enhanced stability on transient operations and thermal cycles. The underlying mechanisms are closely related to the improved surface activity and mass transfer due to the dual features of the electrode structure. Additionally, the enhanced interfacial bonding between the oxygen electrode and electrolyte contributes to increased durability and thermomechanical integrity. This study underscores the critical importance of optimizing electrode microstructure to achieve a balance between surface activity and durability.

Protonic Ceramic Electrochemical Cells↗
DOE OSTI2026

Comparison of the Effects of Bipolar Membrane Preparation Conditions on the Mechanical Durability and Electrochemical Performance for Electrodialysis Applications

Bipolar membranes (BPMs) are enabling materials for electrochemical conversion technologies such as water electrolysis, fuel cells, CO 2 electrolysis, and electrodialysis (ED) for direct air/ocean capture of CO 2 . However, current BPM durability can suffer from chemical, mechanical, and performance degradation when operated at high current density (ion flux) and physical scale. Therefore, this limits its adoption in a wider applications space. BPMs have several known degradation mechanisms, including chemical breakdown of ion-exchange polymers, loss of junction adhesion, or physical breakdown due to shearing force and pressure swings in an electrodialysis cell. To assess the electrochemical stability and mechanical durability of BPMs under operational conditions, we investigated how fabrication conditions (including preconditioning, hot-pressing temperature and pressure, and catalyst loading) impact the adhesion of custom-made BPMs. T-peel studies were performed ex situ to quantify adhesive forces of BPMs, and bipolar membrane electrodialysis (BPMED) experiments were performed to assess the electrochemical performance of the corresponding BPMs. The results of this systematic comparison indicate that hydration and heated pressing create improved adhesion during the fabrication of BPMs, and BPMED testing shows that these fabrication techniques are not detrimental to the electrochemical performance of the BPMs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗