OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEATH IN SPACE: HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS FOR PREPARATION, STOWAGE, AND POTENTIAL RETURN OF REMAINS
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Travis Houser↗
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How Certain Physical Considerations Impact Aerostructural Wing Optimization
Wing design optimization has been studied extensively and is of continued interest as optimization tools are developed and become more accessible. In each of these studies, certain assumptions and simplifications are made to make the design problem tractable. However, it is difficult to find systematic studies in which several considerations are added or removed one at a time to study how much impact they have. In this work, we examine how certain physical considerations (viscous drag, wave drag, thrust loads, and inertial relief from structural, fuel, and engine masses), impact the aerostructural optimization results for three distinct aircraft wings. The goal is to help develop a rough idea of how important these physical considerations are. We do this using gradient-based optimization and a multidisciplinary design optimization framework, OpenMDAO. We use the open-source tool OpenAeroStruct that couples a vortex lattice method to a finite element method. We establish a baseline aerostructural design optimization problem then perform a series of optimizations, each with one physical consideration removed from the baseline case. We find that depending on the size of the aircraft and flight conditions, the importance of some of these physical considerations varies considerably whereas the importance of others do not. Specifically, the optimal designs change radically without proper viscous and wave drag considerations and smaller aircraft with more distributed propulsion are more affected by the inclusion of engine loads.
Aeropropulsion↗
Advanced Air Mobility Vertiport Considerations: A List and Overview
Advanced air mobility (AAM) is an emerging field in aeronautics that involves utilizing small aircraft for everyday transportation and other services, and many AAM aircraft are envisioned to take off and land at new infrastructure termed vertiports. This paper describes a variety of considerations related to AAM vertiports that need to be considered in the planning for and deployment of vertiports in practice. The factors include siting, design, regulations, safety, environmental impact, social acceptance, equity, and operational integration factors. Over 450 considerations were compiled from Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) participating in NASA’s AAM Ecosystem Working Groups (AEWGs) in October 2021. This paper consolidates these considerations and broadly disseminates the valuable knowledge of these SMEs. These considerations can be used by researchers to conduct demand and network analysis, local transportation planners to develop AAM networks for their community, and the AAM ecosystem members to identify policy, standards, and research gaps.
vertiport considerations↗
Manned Mission Planning Considerations when Using a Non-Regenerable CO2 Removal System
As the commercial spacecraft industry increases in size, there will be a corresponding increase in the number of manned spacecraft built and operationally flown each year. Industry teams for these new spacecraft will have multiple design and operational choices to make for each of these spacecraft s subsystems. The carbon dioxide (CO2) removal subsystem of the environmental control and life support system is one that presents such challenges. This paper seeks to aid industry in making design and operations choices by providing a document containing lessons learned by the Space Shuttle Program s Operations team, with specific focus given to the non-regenerable CO2 removal system currently used by the Space Shuttle. Carbon dioxide, one of the key byproducts of respiration, can lead to injury and death if allowed to build up in a spacecraft s habitable environment. Therefore, any spacecraft s environmental control and life support system must contain a method for removing this hazard. These removal systems can either be non-regenerable or regenerable. While this paper defines the difference between these types and presents a generic comparison of their capabilities, the focus is specifically on the Space Shuttle s CO2 removal systems. This will include a short discussion of the Space Shuttle s regenerable amine solid absorption system that was part of the Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) modification, however, emphasis is given to the non-regenerable Lithium Hydroxide canister system used as the prime removal method employed by the Space Shuttle, including a discussion on why this method was chosen over a regenerable system. A full exposition is given on all of the considerations required for mission planning when using a non-regenerable CO2 removal system. Key discussion items include: airflow lessons learned, recent physiological issues related to short term and long term exposure and how lower levels may be more harmful than previously thought, lithium hydroxide dust issues, mass vs. stowage comparisons, cost, complexity considerations, operational margin considerations, timing considerations with respect to the crew s schedule, and logistical management. The conclusion of the paper finalizes the discussion and contains a listing of considerations in regards to CO2 management using a non-regenerable removal system in the near future.
DeSimpelaere, Edward↗
Considerations for the design of Ada reusable packages
Two important considerations that precede the design of Ada reusable packages (commonality and programming standards) are discuessed. First, the importance of designing packages to yield widespread commonality is expressed. A means of measuring the degree of applicability of packages both within and across applications areas is presented. Design consideration that will improve commonality are also discussed. Second, considerations for the development of programming standards are set forth. These considerations will lead to standards that will improve the reusability of Ada packages.
Nise, Norman S.↗
Explanation of Change (EoC) Study: Considerations and Implementation Challenges
This paper discusses the implementation of considerations resulting from a study investigating the cost change experienced by historical NASA science missions. The study investigated historical milestone and monthly status report documentation followed by interviews with key project personnel. The reasons for cost change were binned as being external to NASA, external to the project and internal to the project relative to the project's planning and execution. Based on the results of the binning process and the synthesis of project meetings and interviews, ten considerations were made with the objective to decrease the potential for cost change in future missions. Although no one magic bullet consideration was discovered, the considerations taken as a whole should help reduce cost and schedule change in future NASA missions.
Bitten, Robert E.↗
Considerations for Implementing Voice-Controlled Spacecraft Systems Through a Human-Centered Design Approach
As computational power and speech recognition algorithms improve, the consumer market will see better-performing speech recognition applications. The cell phone and Internet-related service industry have further enhanced speech recognition applications using artificial intelligence and statistical data-mining techniques. These improvements to speech recognition technology (SRT) may one day help astronauts on future deep space human missions that require control of complex spacecraft systems or spacesuit applications by voice. Though SRT and more advanced speech recognition techniques show promise, use of this technology for a space application such as vehicle/habitat/spacesuit requires careful considerations. There are still recognition challenges to overcome such as background noise, human speech variability, and task loading. However, implemented correctly, a voice-controlled spacecraft system (VCSS) can provide a useful, natural and efficient form of human-machine communications during complex tasks such as when the hands and eyes are busy or as an aid for vehicle situational awareness inquiries or collaborative human-robot tasks. This document provides considerations and guidance for the use of SRT in VCSS applications for space missions, specifically in command-and-control (C2) applications where the commanding is user-initiated. First, current SRT limitations as known at the time of this report are given. Then, highlights of SRT used in the space program provide the reader with a history of some of the human spaceflight applications and research. Next, an overview of the speech production process and the intrinsic variations of speech are provided. Finally, general guidance and considerations are given for development of a VCSS using a human-centered design approach for space applications that includes vocabulary selection and performance testing, as well as VCSS considerations for C2 dialogue management design, feedback, error handling, and evaluation/usability testing. Available from
Salazar, George A.↗
Development Considerations for Implementing a Voice-Controlled Spacecraft System
As computational power and speech recognition algorithms improve, the consumer market will see better-performing speech recognition applications. The cell phone and Internet-related service industry have further enhanced speech recognition applications using artificial intelligence and statistical data-mining techniques. These improvements to speech recognition technology (SRT) may one day help astronauts on future deep space human missions that require control of complex spacecraft systems or spacesuit applications by voice. Though SRT and more advanced speech recognition techniques show promise, use of this technology for a space application such as vehicle/habitat/spacesuit requires careful considerations. This paper provides considerations and guidance for the use of SRT in voice-controlled spacecraft systems (VCSS) applications for space missions, specifically in command-and-control (C2) applications where the commanding is user-initiated. First, current SRT limitations as known at the time of this report are given. Then, highlights of SRT used in the space program provide the reader with a history of some of the human spaceflight applications and research. Next, an overview of the speech production process and the intrinsic variations of speech are provided. Finally, general guidance and considerations are given for the development of a VCSS using a human-centered design approach for space applications that includes vocabulary selection and performance testing, as well as VCSS considerations for C2 dialogue management design, feedback, error handling, and evaluation/usability testing.
Salazar, George↗
Electromagnetic Compatibility Considerations for International Space Station Payload Developers
The International Space Station (ISS) is a laboratory for scientific research, innovative technology development, and global education. The ISS provides a number of facilities and platforms for payload developers and investigators to conduct biological, microgravity, and Earth and space observation science, as well as for performing technology development. Due to the unique nature of the ISS vehicle and its electrical power and data systems, achieving electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) with the vehicle requires special considerations by the payload developer. The ISS electromagnetic interference (EMI) requirements and test methods are based on MIL-STD-461, “Electromagnetic Emissions and Susceptibility Requirements for the Control of Electromagnetic Interference”, Revision C, and MIL-STD-462, “Electromagnetic Interference Characteristics, Measurement of,” respectively. The low source impedance of the test setup requires special considerations when designing or selecting EMI power filters and switched mode power supplies. Many filters, suited for later revisions of MIL-STD-461, will result in non-compliant designs. ISS electrical power system power quality requirements, imposed to protect the stability of the system, can also affect EMI filter design. The selection and use of commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) equipment for ISS applications requires special considerations to meet both EMC and crew safety requirements. Furthermore, the ISS environment can provide unique immunity challenges; if the payload developer ignores these challenges, the result is a possible loss of science or impact to technology demonstration. The ISS provides a unique opportunity for the science and technology development community. However, in order to be successful, the payload developer must incorporate special EMC considerations, many of which will be presented.
McCollum, Matthew↗
Engine design considerations for 2nd generation supersonic transports
The environmental and economic goals projected for advanced supersonic transports will require revolutionary improvements in propulsion systems. Variable cycle engine concepts that incorporate unique components and advanced technologies show promise in meeting these goals. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft is conducting conceptual design studies of variable cycle engine concepts under NASA sponsorship. This paper reviews some of the design considerations for these engine concepts. Emphasis is placed on jet noise abatement, reduction of emissions, performance improvements, installation considerations, hot-section characteristics and control system requirements. Two representative variable cycle engine concepts that incorporate these basic design considerations are described.
Howlett, R. A.↗
Concept considerations for a small orbital transfer vehicle
This paper summarizes a study of small orbital transfer vehicles to place payloads in orbits with altitudes above those of the standard Shuttle operations. The overall objective of the study is to examine the role of the small orbital transfer vehicle (SOTV) in Shuttle operations and to identify typical propulsion concepts for accomplishing the mission. Consideration is given to existing and planned systems and upper stages, along with new propulsion stages. The new propulsion concept development examines tandem and clustered solids, controlled solids, monopropellant and bipropellant liquids, and staged solid/liquid combinations. The paper presents considerations of the mission requirements, tradeoffs of the various configurations, and candidate selections. For the selected candidate concepts the performance, support equipment, operational considerations and program costs were determined. The results show that a new modular liquid stage system is cost effective in handling the majority of the payloads considered. The remainder of the payloads can be accomodated by existing systems.
Green, M.↗
Jovian radiation and charging environment considerations in Galileo
The Galileo spacecraft which will orbit Jupiter in 1987 will encounter one of the most interesting natural environments. These include high energy radiation electrons and ions and magnetospheric plasmas. The evaluation of Galileo design commenced with a careful consideration of the plasma environment and the now standard spacecraft charging analysis. In addition the intense high energy radiation environment has necessitated the consideration of charges deposited internally to the spacecraft. This paper presents some of the analyses and the design changes which have occurred as a result of the above mentioned environmental interaction considerations.
Leung, P.↗
Design considerations for a HE-3 refrigerator for space applications
The low temperature provided by He-3 refrigerators (0.3 to 3 K) have useful space applications. However, the low temperatures and the low surface tension of He-3 require special design considerations. The considerations include the need for small pores to contain the liquid in a matrix; the effects of bubble nucleation and growth; and the effects of the thermal conductivity within the matrix. These design considerations are discussed and a possible confinement system is analyzed.
Kittel, P.↗
Data system considerations for remote sensing
The availability of data obtained with the aid of Landsat and other remote sensing satellites provides potentially the possibility to study problems on a global scale. Difficulties arise, however, in connection with the diversity of data formats, archival conditions, and the need for data registration. Systems are being planned to test the ability to reduce some of these difficulties. Details regarding the given situation are examined, taking into account global problems which are being considered. These problems are related to the global carbon dioxide cycle, and the biogeochemical cycle. Attention is given to pilot data systems, considerations for spatial data, data format considerations, data quality considerations, aspects of data base design, and system aids.
Billingsley, F. C.↗
Considerations for an exercise prescription
A number of past and most recent research findings that describe some of the physiological responses to exercise in man and their relationship with exposure to various gravitational environments are discussed. Most of the data pertain to adaptations of the cardiovascular and body fluid systems. It should be kept in mind that the data from studies on microgravity simulation in man include exposures of relatively short duration (5 hours to 14 days). However, it is argued that the results may provide important guidelines for the consideration of many variables which are pertinent to the development of exercise prescription for long-duration space flight. The following considerations for exercise prescriptions during long-duration space flight are noted: (1) Relatively high aerobic fitness and strength, especially of the upper body musculature, should be a criterion for selection of astronauts who will be involved in EVA, since endurance and strength appear to be predominant characteristics for work performance. (2) Some degree of upper body strength will probably be required for effective performance of EVA. However, the endurance and strength required by the upper body for EVA can probably be obtained through preflight exercise prescription which involves swimming. (3) Although some degree of arm exercise may be required to maintain preflight endurance and strength, researchers propose that regular EVA will probably be sufficient to maintain the endurance and strength required to effectively perform work tasks during space flight. (4) A minimum of one maximal aerobic exercise every 7 to 10 days during space flight may be all that is necessary for maintenance of normal cardiovascular responsiveness and replacement of body fluids for reentry following prolonged space flight. (5) The possible reduction in the amount of exercise required for maintenance of cardiovascular system and body fluids in combination with the use of electromyostimulation (EMS) or methods other than conventional exercise for maintaining size and strength of muscles and bones needs great consideration for further research. These approaches represent a potential solution to the problem of compromising valuable time for exercise that is needed for daily operations.
Convertino, Victor A.↗
Habitat Design Considerations for Implementing Solar Particle Event Radiation Protection
Radiation protection is an important habitat design consideration for human exploration missions beyond Low Earth Orbit. Fortunately, radiation shelter concepts can effectively reduce astronaut exposure for the relatively low proton energies of solar particle events, enabling moderate duration missions of several months before astronaut exposure (galactic cosmic ray and solar particle event) approaches radiation exposure limits. In order to minimize habitat mass for increasingly challenging missions, design of radiation shelters must minimize dedicated, single-purpose shielding mass by leveraging the design and placement of habitat subsystems, accommodations, and consumables. NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems RadWorks Storm Shelter Team has recently designed and performed radiation analysis on several low dedicated mass shelter concepts for a year-long mission. This paper describes habitat design considerations identified during the study's radiation analysis. These considerations include placement of the shelter within a habitat for improved protection, integration of human factors guidance for sizing shelters, identification of potential opportunities for habitat subsystems to compromise on individual subsystem performances for overall vehicle mass reductions, and pre-configuration of shelter components for reduced deployment times.
Simon, Mathew A.↗
Considerations for the Next Revision of NASA's Space Telecommunications Radio System Architecture
Development of NASA's Software Defined Radio architecture, the Space Telecommunication Radio System (STRS), was initiated in 2004 with a goal of reducing the cost, risk and schedule when implementing Software Defined Radios (SDR) for National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) space missions. Since STRS was first flown in 2012 on three Software Defined Radios on the Space Communication and Navigation (SCaN) Testbed, only minor changes have been made to the architecture. Multiple entities have since implemented the architecture and provided significant feedback for consideration for the next revision of the standard. The focus for the first set of updates to the architecture is items that enhance application portability. Items that require modifications to existing applications before migrating to the updated architecture will only be considered if there is compelling reasons to make the change. The significant suggestions that were further evaluated for consideration include expanding and clarifying the timing Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), improving handle name and identification (ID) definitions and use, and multiple items related to implementation of STRS Devices. In addition to ideas suggested while implementing STRS, SDR technology has evolved significantly and this impact to the architecture needs to be considered. These include incorporating cognitive concepts - learning from past decisions and making new decisions that the radio can act upon. SDRs are also being developed that do not contain a General Purpose Module - which is currently required for the platform to be STRS compliant. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the comments received, provide a summary of the evaluation considerations, and examine planned dispositions.
transmitters receivers↗
Considerations for the Next Revision of STRS
Development of NASAs Software Defined Radio architecture, the Space Telecommunication Radio System (STRS), was initiated in 2004 with a goal of reducing the cost, risk and schedule when implementing Software Defined Radios (SDR) for NASA space missions. Since STRS was first flown in 2012 on three Software Defined Radios on the Space Communication and Navigation (SCaN) Testbed, only minor changes have been made to the architecture. Multiple entities have since implemented the architecture and have provided significant feedback for consideration for the next revision of the standard. The focus for the first set of updates to the architecture is items that enhance application portability. Items that require modifications to existing applications before migrating to the updated architecture will only be considered if there is compelling reasons to make the change. The significant suggestions that were further evaluated for consideration include expanding and clarifying the timing Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), improving handle name and identification (ID) definitions and use, and multiple items related to implementation of STRS Devices. In addition to ideas suggested while implementing STRS, SDR technology has evolved significantly and this impact to the architecture needs to be considered. These include incorporating cognitive concepts - learning from past decisions and making new decisions that the radio can act upon. SDRs are also being developed that do not contain a General Purpose Module which is currently required for the platform to be STRS compliant. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the comments received, provide a summary of the evaluation considerations, and examine planned dispositions
waveforms↗