Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “btu”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Experimental Validation of a New Cost-Effective and Nonintrusive BTU Meter

This report summarizes the research conducted under a Collaborative Research and Development Agreement with FluxTeq LLC for experimental validation of a new inexpensive and nonintrusive thermal energy meter (referred as a BTU meter). BTU meters measure thermal energy flows in energy systems (e.g., chillers or boilers); measurements of these flows are essential for performance monitoring, fault detection and diagnostics, and control of these energy systems. The key component of a BTU meter is the device for measuring flow rate. Most flow rate meters available today are either intrusive and difficult to install, especially on existing energy systems, or built around sophisticated,very expensive ultrasonic sensors.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2013

Estimation of the Optimal Brachytherapy Utilization Rate in the Treatment of Gynecological Cancers and Comparison With Patterns of Care

Purpose: We aimed to estimate the optimal proportion of all gynecological cancers that should be treated with brachytherapy (BT)-the optimal brachytherapy utilization rate (BTU)-to compare this with actual gynecological BTU and to assess the effects of nonmedical factors on access to BT. Methods and Materials: The previously constructed inter/multinational guideline-based peer-reviewed models of optimal BTU for cancers of the uterine cervix, uterine corpus, and vagina were combined to estimate optimal BTU for all gynecological cancers. The robustness of the model was tested by univariate and multivariate sensitivity analyses. The resulting model was applied to New South Wales (NSW), the United States, and Western Europe. Actual BTU was determined for NSW by a retrospective patterns-of-care study of BT; for Western Europe from published reports; and for the United States from Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results data. Differences between optimal and actual BTU were assessed. The effect of nonmedical factors on access to BT in NSW were analyzed. Results: Gynecological BTU was as follows: NSW 28% optimal (95% confidence interval [CI] 26%-33%) compared with 14% actual; United States 30% optimal (95% CI 26%-34%) and 10% actual; and Western Europe 27% optimal (95% CI 25%-32%) and 16% actual. On multivariate analysis, NSW patients were more likely to undergo gynecological BT if residing in Area Health Service equipped with BT (odds ratio 1.76, P=.008) and if residing in socioeconomically disadvantaged postcodes (odds ratio 1.12, P=.05), but remoteness of residence was not significant. Conclusions: Gynecological BT is underutilized in NSW, Western Europe, and the United States given evidence-based guidelines. Access to BT equipment in NSW was significantly associated with higher utilization rates. Causes of underutilization elsewhere were undetermined. Our model of optimal BTU can be used as a quality assurance tool, providing an evidence-based benchmark against which actual patterns of practice can be measured. It can also be used to assist in determining the adequacy of BT resource allocation.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2011

Pyramid Resource Center-Green Energy Center

There are currently over 3,500 USA/Canadian landfills listed by the EPA/EC and like numbers in Europe that are producing methane-rich landfill gas (LFG). This gas is typically made up of 50-percent methane (CH4), 35-percent carbon dioxide (CO2), and 2 to 25% nitrogen and oxygen (N2 & O2), plus dozens of dilute contaminants. LFG is classified as a renewable fuel, because it is generated via biological decay of municipal solid waste, a constant byproduct of human activity. To date, most LFG has been allowed to escape into the atmosphere. On account of its high CH4 content, LFG may contribute to climate change, as CH4 is one of the most harmful greenhouse gases with 21 times the global warming potential of CO2. Of the landfills that collect LFG, most simply flare it. In the past decade, some landfills have begun to use LFG for electricity generation or for direct combustion as low Btu gas. Very few landfills upgrade LFG to high Btu gas. A patented CO2 WashTM process developed by Acrion Technologies Inc., and licensed to Firm Green Inc. shows promise as an economically and environmentally sustainable process to recover energy and prevent pollution from landfills. The CO2 WashTM has already been proven at lab-scale. It upgrades LFG, which consists of 50% methane (CH4) + 35% carbon dioxide (CO2) + 2 to 25% nitrogen + oxygen (N2+O2), 1 to 2% water vapor, and dozens of contaminants (which total a few hundred to a few thousand parts per million). CH4, which by itself has an energy content of 1,012 British thermal units (Btu) per standard cubic foot (SCF), is the only component in LFG that contributes to its energy content, which is therefore about 400-550 Btu/SCF. Accordingly, raw LFG is usually referred to as medium-Btu gas. To be salable, it is necessary to remove essentially all the components besides CH4, while keeping the vast majority of the revenue producing CH4. This is high-Btu gas, yielding 850 to 1,000 Btu/SCF. The CO2 WashTM process upgrades LFG to about 930 Btu/SCF, and reduces the contaminants to levels that make it salable as a vehicle fuel in the form of compressed natural gas (CNG).

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2013

New Manufacturing Method for Paper Filler and Fiber Material

The use of fillers in printing and writing papers has become a prerequisite for competing in a global market to reduce the cost of materials. Use of calcium carbonates (ranging from 18% to 30%) as filler is a common practice in the paper industry but the choices of fillers for each type of papers vary widely according to its use. The market for uncoated digital printing paper is one that continues to introduce exciting growth projections. and it is important to understand the effect that new manufacturing methods of calcium carbonates have on the energy efficiency and paper production. Research conducted under this award showed that the new fiber filler composite material has the potential to increase the paper filler content by up to 5% without losing mechanical properties. Benefits of the technology can be summarized as follows for a 1% filler increase per metric ton of paper produced: (i) production cost savings over $12, (ii) Energy savings of 100,900 btu, (iii) CO 2 emission savings of 33 lbs, and additional savings for wood preparation, pulping, recovery of 203593 btu with a 46lbs of CO 2 emission savings per 1% filler increase. In addition the technology has the potential to save: (i) additional $3 per ton of bleached pulp produced, (ii) bleaching energy savings of 170,000 btu, (iii) bleaching CO 2 emission savings of 39 lbs, and (iv) additional savings for replacing conventional bleaching chemicals with a sustainable bleaching chemical is estimated to be 900,000 btu with a 205 lbs of CO 2 emission savings per ton of bleached pulp produced. All the above translates to a estimated annual savings for a 12% filler increase of 296 trillion buts or 51 million barrel of oil equivalent (BOE) or 13.7% of the industries energy demand. This can lead to a increase of renewable energy usage from 56% to close to 70% for the industry sector. CO 2 emission of the industry at a 12% filler increase could be lowered by over 39 million tons annually. If the new technology could be implemented for bleaching process a total annual estimated energy savings potential of 64 trillion buts or 11 million barrel of oil equivalent (BOE) equal to 3% of the paper industries energy demand could be realized. This could lead to a increase of renewable energy usage from 56% to close to 60% for the industry. CO 2 emissions could be lowered by over 7.4 million tons annually. It is estimated that an installed system could also yield a 75 to 100% return of investment (ROI) rate for the capital equipment that need to be installed for the fiber filler composite manufacturing process.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solar Energy Extension Project

The town of Stratford plans to develop and own a 6 kilowatt (kW) solar array on the roof of a municipal-owned public pavilion on the town green. A SolarEdge level 2 EV charging station will be installed at the pavilion to be used by the public. The charging station will have one charging port. The town will install 3 air source heat pumps in the library located adjacent to the pavilion to reduce the use of propane to heat the library. The town will install 4 air source heat pumps in the Town Hall to reduce the use of #2 heating oil to heat the facility. The 6 kW solar array will provide electricity to the library to offset electricity usage, and when an EV plugs into the charging station the solar will provide electricity to the charging station. There is no ground disturbance or ground trenching associated with this project. The 6 kW solar array on the roof of the pavilion will include 20 (390) watt all black panels. A SolarEdge level 2 EV charger will be installed at the pavilion with the 240 V inverter. The solar array will provide electricity to the library and when a vehicle plugs into the EV charger the solar array will switch to power the charger. Any excess electricity that is generated by the array and not used by the library or the EV charger will be fed onto the grid and the town will receive a net metering credit applied towards future consumption. There is no ground disturbance associated with the EV charger or solar array, and the town will install signage to direct the public to the charger. The library will install 2 (18,000) BTU ductless air source heat pumps and 1 (24,000) BTU unit. This will significantly reduce the amount of propane required to heat the library. The Town Hall will install 2 (36,000) BTU ductless air source heat pumps and 2 (9,000) BTU units to reduce the amount of #2 heating oil required to heat the building.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

ALICE-USA Barrel Tracking Upgrade (Project Final Report)

The ALICE-USA Barrel Tracking Upgrade (BTU) project began in 2015 to participate in a major upgrade of the Time Projection Chamber (TPC) and the Inner Tracking System (ITS) of the ALICE Experiment at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. This upgrade increased the maximum readout rate of the ALICE detector to accommodate the increased heavy ion interaction rates following Long Shutdown 2 of the Large Hadron Collider, and greatly improved the vertexing performance of the detector. The original scope was completed and reviewed in November 2019. The BTU project document BTU.19.v1 "ALICE Barrel Tracking Upgrade Project Closeout / Transition to Operations (2019)" from November 2019 describes the status in detail and is attached as Appendix 1 below. At that point, all delivery milestones had been met on time, all Key Performance Parameters (KPPs) of the project had been satisfied, and the project was under budget. Several subsequent No Cost Extensions (NCEs) supported integration and pre-commissioning of the BTU project deliverables at CERN, as well as study and assessment of performance with Pb-Pb collisions at 50 kHz. The BTU project was successfully completed on 30 September 2024.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2012

Selectivity Control in Synergistic Liquid-Liquid Anion Exchange of Univalent Anions via Structure-Specific Cooperativity between Quaternary Ammonium Cations and Anion Receptors

Two anion receptors enhance liquid-liquid anion exchange when added to quaternary alkylammonium chloride anion exchangers, but with a striking dependence upon the structure of the alkylammonium cation. Two anion receptors were investigated, meso-octamethylcalix[4]pyrrole (C4P) and the bisthiourea tweezer 1,1'-(propane-1,3-diyl)bis(3-(4-sec-butylphenyl)thiourea (BTU). C4P has the unique ability in its cone anion-binding conformation to accept an appropriately sized electropositive species in the resulting cup formed by its four electron-rich pyrrole groups, while BTU is not expected to be predisposed for a specific host-guest interaction with the quaternary ammonium cations. It was therefore hypothesized that synergism between C4P and methyltri(C8,10)alkylammonium chloride (Aliquat 336) would be uniquely pronounced owing to insertion of the methyl group of the Aliquat cation into the C4P cup, and we present herein data supporting this expectation. While synergism is comparatively weak for both exchangers with the BTU receptor, synergism between C4P and Aliquat 336 is indeed so strong that anion exchange prefers chloride over more extractable nitrate and trifluoroacetate, effectively overcoming the ubiquitous Hofmeister bias. A thermochemical analysis of synergistic anion exchange has been provided for the first time, unraveling the observed selectivity behavior and resulting in the estimation of binding constants for C4P with the ion pairs of A336+ with Cl , Br , OAcF3 , NO3 , and I . The uniquely strong positive cooperativity between A336 and C4P underscores the advantage of a supramolecular approach in the design of synergistic anion exchange systems.

anion binding↗
DOE OSTI2011

HFC Concrete: A Low-­Energy, Carbon-Dioxide­-Negative Solution for reducing Industrial Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Final Technical Report)

Solidia/CCSM received funding for further research and development of its Low Temperature Solidification Process (LTS), which is used to create hydrate-free concrete (HFC). LTS/HFC is a technology/materials platform that offers wide applicability in the built infrastructure. Most importantly, it provides a means of making concrete without Portland cement. Cement and concrete production is a major consumer of energy and source of industrial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The primary goal of this project was to develop and commercialize a novel material, HFC, which by replacing traditional concrete and cement, reduces both energy use and GHG emissions in the built infrastructure. Traditional concrete uses Portland Cement (PC) as a binder. PC production involves calcination of limestone at ~1450°C, which releases significant amounts of CO 2 gas to the atmosphere and consumes a large amount of energy due to the high temperature required. In contrast, HFC is a carbonate-based hydrate-free concrete (HFC) that consumes CO 2 gas in its production. HFC is made by reaction of silicate minerals with CO 2 at temperatures below 100°C, more than an order-of-magnitude below the temperature required to make PC. Because of this significant difference in temperature, it is estimated that we will be able to reduce energy use in the cement and concrete industry by up to 30 trillion Btu by 2020. Because of the insulating properties of HFC, we believe we will also be able to significantly reduce energy use in the Building sector, though the extent of this saving is not yet quantified. It is estimated that production of a tonne of PC-based concrete requires about 6.2 million Btu of energy and produces over 1 tonne of CO 2 emissions (Choate, 2003). These can be reduced to 1.9 million Btu and 0.025 tonnes of CO 2 emissions per tonne of HFC (with overall CO 2 -negativity possible by increasing carbonation yield). In this way, by replacing PC-based concrete with HFC in infrastructure we can reduce energy use in concrete production by 70%, and reduce CO 2 emissions by 98%; thus the potential to reduce the impact of building materials on global warming and climate change is highly significant. Low Temperature Solidification (LTS) is a breakthrough technology that enables the densification of inorganic materials via a hydrothermal process. The resulting product exhibits excellent control of chemistry and microstructure, to provide durability and mechanical performance that exceeds that of concrete or natural stone. The technology can be used in a wide range of applications including facade panels, interior tiles, roof tiles, countertops, and pre-cast concrete. Replacing traditional building materials and concrete in these applications will result in significant reduction in both energy consumption and CO 2 emissions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Transportation Energy: A Comparison Including and Excluding Upstream Energy

Thirty-eight editions of the Transportation Energy Data Book (Data Book) have been published since the report began in 1976. It was designed as a desk-top reference of statistics and information that characterize transportation activity. The most recent Data Book, edition 38, has 226 tables and 70 figures in the body of the report, with an additional 51 tables in appendices. One of the most-often used tables in the Data Book is referred to by the authors as “the big energy table.” It has transportation energy use in British thermal units (Btu) by mode and fuel type. The data are compiled from about 20 different sources and combined to create a detailed picture of transportation energy use. From the first edition to edition 35 of the Data Book, electricity use in the big energy table was converted from the original kilowatt-hours (kWh) to Btu using the net generation heat rate for fossil fuels. In those days, electricity was used mainly by transit rail. As electricity began to be used in the highway modes with consumer sales of electric vehicles, that process was revisited. Since energy use in the Data Book’s big energy table for all other fuels did not include the upstream energy to create the fuel, it seemed inconsistent to include upstream energy for generation of electricity. Beginning with edition 36, electricity use for the big energy table was converted from kilowatt hours to Btu using the heat content of electricity. Using heat content instead of net generation reduced electricity use data by about two-thirds. Feedback in recent years on the change in process for electricity led to an investigation of the differences in transportation energy use when adding estimates of upstream energy use to all the fuels used in transportation. This report documents the result of that effort.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2011

Energy Saving Melting and Revert Reduction Technology (Energy SMARRT): Development of CCT Diagrams

One of the most energy intensive industries in the U.S. today is in the melting and casting of steel alloys for use in our advanced technological society. While the majority of steel castings involve low or mild carbon steel for common construction materials, highly-alloyed steels constitute a critical component of many industries due to their excellent properties. However, as the amount of alloying additions increases, the problems associated with casting these materials also increases, resulting in a large waste of energy due to inefficiency and a lack of basic information concerning these often complicated alloy systems. Superaustenitic stainless steels constitute a group of Fe-based alloys that are compositionally balanced to have a purely austenitic matrix and exhibit favorable pitting and crevice corrosion resistant properties and mechanical strength. However, intermetallic precipitates such as sigma (³) and Laves can form during casting or exposure to high-temperature processing, which degrade the corrosion and mechanical properties of the material. Knowledge of the times and temperatures at which these detrimental phases form is imperative if a company is to efficiently produce castings of high quality in the minimum amount of time, using the lowest amount of energy possible, while producing the least amount of material waste. Anecdotal evidence from company representatives revealed that large castings frequently had to be scrapped due to either lower than expected corrosion resistance or extremely low fracture toughness. It was suspected that these poor corrosion and / or mechanical properties were directly related to the type, amount, and location of various intermetallic phases that formed during either the cooling cycle of the castings or subsequent heat treatments. However, no reliable data existed concerning either the time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams or the continuous-cooling-transformation (CCT) diagrams of the super-austenitics. The goal of this study was to accurately characterize the solid-solid phase transformations seen in cast superaustenitic stainless steels. Heat treatments were performed to understand the time and temperature ranges for intermetallic phase formations in alloys CN3MN and CK3McuN. Microstructures were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and energy and wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (EDS, WDS). In this way TTT and CCT diagrams could be developed for the matrix of samples chosen. As this study consisted of basic research into the development of TTT and CCT diagrams as an aid to the US steel casting industry, there is no formal commercialization plan associated with this task other than presentations and publications via the Steel Founders Society of America to their members. The author is confident that the data contained in this report can be used by steel foundries to refine their casting procedures in such a way as to reduce the amount of waste produced and energy wasted by significantly reducing or eliminating the need for remelting or recasting of material due to unwanted, premature intermetallic formation. This development of high alloy steel CCT diagrams was predicted to result in an average energy savings of 0.05 trillion BTU's/year over a 10 year period (with full funding). With 65% of the proposed funding, current (2011) annual energy saving estimates, based on initial dissemination to the casting industry in 2011and market penetration of 97% by 2020, is 0.14 trillion BTU's/year. The reduction of scrap and improvement in casting yield will also result in a reduction of environmental emissions associated with the melting and pouring of the steel. The average annual estimate of CO2 reduction per year through 2020 is 0.003 Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent (MM TCE)

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2011

Energy Saving Melting and Revert Reduction Technology (E-SMARRT): Mechanical Performance of Dies

As a net shape process, die casting is intrinsically efficient and improvements in energy efficiency are strongly dependent on design and process improvements that reduce scrap rates so that more of the total consumed energy goes into acceptable, usable castings. A casting that is distorted and fails to meet specified dimensional requirements is typically remelted but this still results in a decrease in process yield, lost productivity, and increased energy consumption. This work focuses on developing, and expanding the use of, computer modeling methods that can be used to improve the dimensional accuracy of die castings and produce die designs and machine/die setups that reduce rejection rates due to dimensional issues. A major factor contributing to the dimensional inaccuracy of the casting is the elastic deformations of the die cavity caused by the thermo mechanical loads the dies are subjected to during normal operation. Although thermal and die cavity filling simulation are widely used in the industry, structural modeling of the die, particularly for managing part distortion, is not yet widely practiced. This may be due in part to the need to have a thorough understanding of the physical phenomenon involved in die distortion and the mathematical theory employed in the numerical models to efficiently model the die distortion phenomenon. Therefore, two of the goals of this work are to assist in efforts to expand the use of structural modeling and related technologies in the die casting industry by 1) providing a detailed modeling guideline and tutorial for those interested in developing the necessary skills and capability and 2) by developing simple meta-models that capture the results and experience gained from several years of die distortion research and can be used to predict key distortion phenomena of relevance to a die caster with a minimum of background and without the need for simulations. These objectives were met. A detailed modeling tutorial was provided to NADCA for distribution to the industry. Power law based meta-models for predicting machine tie bar loading and for predicting maximum parting surface separation were successfully developed and tested against simulation results for a wide range of machines and experimental data. The models proved to be remarkably accurate, certainly well within the requirements for practical application. In addition to making die structural modeling more accessible, the work advanced the state-of-the-art by developing improved modeling of cavity pressure effects, which is typically modeled as a hydrostatic boundary condition, and performing a systematic analysis of the influence of ejector die design variables on die deflection and parting plane separation. This cavity pressure modeling objective met with less than complete success due to the limits of current finite element based fluid structure interaction analysis methods, but an improved representation of the casting/die interface was accomplished using a combination of solid and shell elements in the finite element model. This approximation enabled good prediction of final part distortion verified with a comprehensive evaluation of the dimensions of test castings produced with a design experiment. An extra deliverable of the experimental work was development of high temperature mechanical properties for the A380 die casting alloy. The ejector side design objective was met and the results were incorporated into the metamodels described above. This new technology was predicted to result in an average energy savings of 2.03 trillion BTU's/year over a 10 year period. Current (2011) annual energy saving estimates over a ten year period, based on commercial introduction in 2009, a market penetration of 70% by 2014 is 4.26 trillion BTU's/year by 2019. Along with these energy savings, reduction of scrap and improvement in casting yield will result in a reduction of the environmental emissions associated with the melting and pouring of the metal which will be saved as a result of this technology. The average annual estimate of CO2 reduction per year through 2020 is 0.085 Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent (MM TCE).

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2011

Optimizing Energy Savings from Direct-DC in U.S. Residential Buildings

An increasing number of energy efficient appliances operate on direct current (DC) internally, offering the potential to use DC from renewable energy systems directly and avoiding the losses inherent in converting power to alternating current (AC) and back. This paper investigates that potential for net-metered residences with on-site photovoltaics (PV) by modeling the net power draw of the ‘direct-DC house’ with respect to today’s typical configuration, assuming identical DC-internal loads. Power draws were modeled for houses in 14 U.S. cities, using hourly, simulated PV-system output and residential loads. The latter were adjusted to reflect a 33% load reduction, representative of the most efficient DC-internal technology, based on an analysis of 32 electricity end-uses. The model tested the effect of climate, electric vehicle (EV) loads, electricity storage, and load shifting on electricity savings; a sensitivity analysis was conducted to determine how future changes in the efficiencies of power system components might affect savings potential. Based on this work, we estimate that net-metered PV residences could save 5% of their total electricity load for houses without storage and 14% for houses with storage. Based on residential PV penetration projections for year 2035 obtained from the National Energy Modeling System (2.7% for the reference case and 11.2% for the extended policy case), direct-DC could save the nation 10 trillion Btu (without storage) or 40 trillion Btu (with storage). Shifting the cooling load by two hours earlier in the day (pre-cooling) has negligible benefits for energy savings. Direct-DC provides no energy savings benefits for EV charging, to the extent that charging occurs at night. However, if charging occurred during the day, for example with employees charging while at work, the benefits would be large. Direct-DC energy savings are sensitive to power system and appliance conversion efficiencies but are not significantly influenced by climate. While direct-DC for residential applications will most likely arise as a spin-off of developments in the commercial sector—because of lower barriers to market entry and larger energy benefits resulting from the higher coincidence between load and insolation—this paper demonstrates that there are substantial benefits in the residential sector as well. Among residential applications, space cooling derives the largest energy savings from being delivered by a direct-DC system. It is the largest load for the average residence on a national basis and is particularly so in high-load regions. It is also the load with highest solar coincidence.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2012

Energy Saving Melting and Revert Reduction Technology: Aging of Graphitic Cast Irons and Machinability

The objective of this task was to determine whether ductile iron and compacted graphite iron exhibit age strengthening to a statistically significant extent. Further, this effort identified the mechanism by which gray iron age strengthens and the mechanism by which age-strengthening improves the machinability of gray cast iron. These results were then used to determine whether age strengthening improves the machinability of ductile iron and compacted graphite iron alloys in order to develop a predictive model of alloy factor effects on age strengthening. The results of this work will lead to reduced section sizes, and corresponding weight and energy savings. Improved machinability will reduce scrap and enhance casting marketability. Technical Conclusions: Age strengthening was demonstrated to occur in gray iron ductile iron and compacted graphite iron. Machinability was demonstrated to be improved by age strengthening when free ferrite was present in the microstructure, but not in a fully pearlitic microstructure. Age strengthening only occurs when there is residual nitrogen in solid solution in the Ferrite, whether the ferrite is free ferrite or the ferrite lamellae within pearlite. Age strengthening can be accelerated by Mn at about 0.5% in excess of the Mn/S balance Estimated energy savings over ten years is 13.05 trillion BTU, based primarily on yield improvement and size reduction of castings for equivalent service. Also it is estimated that the heavy truck end use of lighter castings for equivalent service requirement will result in a diesel fuel energy savings of 131 trillion BTU over ten years.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2012

Energy Saving Melting and Revert Reduction Technology: Improved Die Casting Process to Preserve the Life of the Inserts

The goal of this project was to study the combined effects of die design, proper internal cooling and efficient die lubricants on die life. The project targeted improvements in die casting insert life by: Optimized Die Design for Reduced Surface Temperature: The life of die casting dies is significantly shorter when the die is exposed to elevated temperature for significant periods of time. Any die operated under conditions leading to surface temperature in excess of 1050oF undergoes structural changes that reduce its strength. Optimized die design can improve die life significantly. This improvement can be accomplished by means of cooling lines, baffles and bubblers in the die. A key objective of the project was to establish criteria for the minimal distance of the cooling lines from the surface. This effort was supported with alloys and machining by BohlerUddeholm, Dunn Steel, HH Stark and Rex Buckeye. In plant testing and evaluation was conducted as in-kind cost share at St. Clair Die Casting. The Uddeholm Dievar steel evaluated in this program showed superior resistance to thermal fatigue resistance. Based on the experimental evidence, cooling lines could be placed as close as 0.5" from the surface. Die Life Extension by Optimized Die Lubrication: The life of die casting dies is affected by additions made to its surface with the proper lubricants. These lubricants will protect the surface from the considerable temperature peaks that occur when the molten melt enters the die. Dies will reach a significantly higher temperature without this lubricant being applied. The amount and type of the lubricant are critical variables in the die casting process. However, these lubricants must not corrode the die surface. This effort was supported with alloys and machining by BohlerUddeholm, Dunn Steel, HH Stark and Rex Buckeye. In plant testing and evaluation was conducted as in-kind cost share at St. Clair Die Casting. Chem- Trend participated in the program with die lubricants and technical support. Experiments conducted with these lubricants demonstrated good protection of the substrate steel. Graphite and boron nitride used as benchmarks are capable of completely eliminating soldering and washout. However, because of cost and environmental considerations these materials are not widely used in industry. The best water-based die lubricants evaluated in this program were capable of providing similar protection from soldering and washout. In addition to improved part quality and higher production rates, improving die casting processes to preserve the life of the inserts will result in energy savings and a reduction in environmental wastes. Improving die life by means of optimized cooling line placement, baffles and bubblers in the die will allow for reduced die temperatures during processing, saving energy associated with production. The utilization of optimized die lubricants will also reduce heat requirements in addition to reducing waste associated with soldering and washout. This new technology was predicted to result in an average energy savings of 1.1 trillion BTU's/year over a 10 year period. Current (2012) annual energy saving estimates, based on commercial introduction in 2010, a market penetration of 70% by 2020 is 1.26 trillion BTU's/year. Along with these energy savings, reduction of scrap and improvement in casting yield will result in a reduction of the environmental emissions associated with the melting and pouring of the metal which will be saved as a result of this technology. The average annual estimate of CO2 reduction per year through 2020 is 0.025 Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent (MM TCE).

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2012

Livingston Parish Landfill Methane Recovery Project (Feasibility Study)

The Woodside Landfill is owned by Livingston Parish, Louisiana and is operated under contract by Waste Management of Louisiana LLC. This public owner/private operator partnership is commonplace in the solid waste industry today. The landfill has been in operation since approximately 1988 and has a permitted capacity of approximately 41 million cubic yards. Based on an assumed in-place waste density of 0.94 ton per cubic yard, the landfill could have an expected design capacity of 39.3 million tons. The landfill does have an active landfill gas collection and control system (LFGCCS) in place because it meets the minimum thresholds for the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS). The initial LFGCS was installed prior to 2006 and subsequent phases were installed in 2007 and 2010. The Parish received a grant from the United States Department of Energy in 2009 to evaluate the potential for landfill gas recovery and utilization at the Woodside Landfill. This includes a technical and economic feasibility study of a project to install a landfill gas to energy (LFGTE) plant and to compare alternative technologies. The LFGTE plant can take the form of on-site electrical generation, a direct use/medium Btu option, or a high-Btu upgrade technology. The technical evaluation in Section 2 of this report concludes that landfill gas from the Woodside landfill is suitable for recovery and utilization. The financial evaluations in sections 3, 4, and 5 of this report provide financial estimates of the returns for various utilization technologies. The report concludes that the most economically viable project is the Electricity Generation option, subject to the Parish’s ability and willingness to allocate adequate cash for initial capital and/or to obtain debt financing. However, even this option does not present a solid return: by our estimates, there is a 19 year simple payback on the electricity generation option. All of the energy recovery options discussed in this report economically stressed. The primary reason for this is the recent fundamental shift in the US energy landscape. Abundant supplies of natural gas have put downward pressure on any project that displaces natural gas or natural gas substitutes. Moreover, this shift appears long-term as domestic supplies for natural gas may have been increased for several hundred years. While electricity prices are less affected by natural gas prices than other thermal projects, they are still significantly affected since much of the power in the Entergy cost structure is driven by natural gas-fired generation. Consequently, rates reimbursed by the power company based on their avoided cost structure also face downward pressure over the near and intermediate term. In addition, there has been decreasing emphasis on environmental concerns regarding the production of thermal energy, and as a result both the voluntary and mandatory markets that drive green attribute prices have softened significantly over the past couple of years. Please note that energy markets are constantly changing due to fundamental supply and demand forces, as well as from external forces such as regulations and environmental concerns. At any point in the future, the outlook for energy prices may change and could deem either the electricity generation or pipeline injection project more feasible. This report is intended to serve as the primary background document for subsequent decisions made at Parish staff and governing board levels.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Port Graham Community Building Biomass Heating Design Project

Native Village of Port Graham completed preconstruction activities to prepare for construction and operations of a cord wood biomass heating system to five or more community buildings in Port Graham, Alaska. Project Description Native Village of Port Graham (NVPG) completed preconstruction activities that pave the way towards reduced local energy costs through the construction and operations of a cord wood biomass heating system. NVPG plans include installation of a GARN WHS 3200 Boiler that uses cord wood as fuel source. Implementation of the 700,000 Btu per hour output biomass community building heat utility would heat 5-community buildings in Port Graham, Alaska. Heating system is estimated to displace 85% of the heating fuel oil or 5365 gallons of fuel on an annual basis with an estimated peak output of 600,000 Btu per hour. Estimated savings is $15,112.00 per year. The construction cost estimate made to install the new biomass boiler system is estimated $251,693.47 with an additional Boiler Building expansion cost estimated at $97,828.40. Total installed cost is estimated $349,521.87. The WHS 3200 Boiler would be placed inside a new structure at the old community Water Plant Building site that is controlled by NVPG. Design of the new biomass heat plant and hot water loop system was completed by Richmond Engineering, NVPG contractor for the project. A hot water heat loop system running off the boiler is designed to be placed underground on lands controlled by NVPG and stubbed to feed hot water to existing base board heating system in the following community buildings: 1. Anesia Anahonak Moonin Health and Dental Clinic 2. Native Village of Port Graham offices 3. Port Graham Public Safety Building/Fire Department 4. Port Graham Corporation Office Building which also houses the Port Graham Museum and Head Start Center 5. North Pacific Rim Housing Authority Workshop/Old Fire Hall Existing community buildings fuel oil heating systems are to be retro-fitted to accommodate hot water from the proposed wood-burning GARN Boiler, once installed, and rely on the existing fuel oil-fired hot water heating equipment for backup. The boiler would use an estimated 125 bone dry tons, equivalent to 100 cords, woody biomass feedstock obtained from local lands per year. Project would use local labor as described in the Port Graham Biomass Project, report completed by Chena Power, Inc. and Winters and Associates as part of the in-kind support to the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) project for work on a project for State of Alaska’s Alaska Energy Authority (AEA). NVPG will likely initiate operations of the biomass boiler system even though several operational variations were studied. Obtaining the fuel source could be done by contractors, PGVC employees, or NVPG employees. Feeding the system would likely be done by NVPG employees. A majority of the buildings heated would be owned by NVPG. The PGVC office would be heated as well as the Old Fire Hall used as a workshop and storage area for North Pacific Rim Housing Authority. One methodology studied to charge for cost of utilizing the community building biomass system would use a percentage of use of hot water generated by the biomass hot water system based on past heating oil usage in relation to all buildings heated by biomass hot water. The method is better described in the Port Graham Biomass Project report. Fuel source agreements have been drafted to enter into agreements with area landowners. One Native allotment owner has asked Chugachmiut Forestry to begin a timber sale process to sell timber off her lands, specifically wind thrown timber that was determined to be of sufficient quantity to supply to the proposed biomass heating system for approximately 5-years. On NVPG’s behalf, Chugachmiut has presented to PGVC three different documents, attached, that could lead to a sale of woody biomass fuel for the project for up to 25-years, the expected life of the project. PGVC has signed a letter of intent to negotiate a sale of woody biomass material April 30, 2015. Chugachmiut Forestry has conducted two different field forest measurements of Native allotment lands and PGVC forest and timber lands. Lands deemed road accessible for biomass harvest were analyzed for this project. Forestry then conducted three different analyses and developed two reports to determine forest biomass on a tons per acre basis in addition to timber volume measurements taken for forest management purposes. Permits required were limited. For the biomass building, the Kenai Peninsula Borough did not require a permit. State of Alaska, Department of Public Safety, Division of Fire and Life Safety requires a plan review for fire and life safety requirements called an application for Fire and Life Safety Plan Review that would require a registered design professional to sign the document. State of Alaska State Forest Practices Act is required to be followed for any timber sale or harvest. This Act also requires consultation with Alaska Department of Fish and Game when operations are in close proximity or cross anadromous waters. Native allotment lands require following U. S. Bureau of Indian Affairs timber sale contracting process and approval.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2017

A high-fidelity model for coupling flow and mechanical deformation of the porous paper web - a key to improved understanding of dewatering and rewet at the press section in paper making

The U.S. pulp and paper industry is the third-largest manufacturing user of energy, with an energy demand of 2,540 trillion Btu in 2010. Within the papermaking process, drying consumes over 400 trillion Btu annually which makes it one of the largest energy saving opportunities. In the 2014 Forest Products Industry Technology Roadmap, it is concluded that increasing the paper web solid content entering the dryer section from the current 45- 55 percent to approaching 65 percent, which would save 1.0 MMBtu per ton or 20 percent of the energy used in drying, is one of the most needed technology breakthroughs to achieve a more sustainable approach for manufacturing pulp and paper products. Achieving such significant energy savings highly depends on understanding the fundamental dynamics of the wet press process and then developing optimized solutions for design of more energy-efficient press processes and equipment. The objective of this project is to develop reliable computational capabilities to accurately simulate the flow of water from/to the porous pulp medium (dewatering/rewetting) during the pressing process in paper making.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2019

Making Coal Relevant for Small Scale Applications: Modular Gasification for Syngas/Engine CHP Applications in Challenging Environments

This Front-End Engineering Design (FEED) study is funded by the US Department of Energy (DOE), and managed by the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) through a Cooperative Agreement awarded to the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) to perform a technical and cost study for the design and installation of a Hamilton-Maurer International (HMI) gasifier for generating a clean syngas for firing in reciprocating engines. An existing diesel engine generator (DEG) and a commercially available spark ignition engine are used to generate electricity with the low-Btu syngas. Other than the HMI gasifier, only commercially available technologies were assumed for this study. An important objective of this design study was to estimate capital and operating costs of small modular coal and coal/biomass fired generating units to provide wind regulation services. Although this study is based on retrofitting an existing coal fired power plant with the HMI gasifier, sufficient data was developed to characterize greenfield units. The original concept was to provide clean syngas and tars/oils from the gasification process to the existing Colt-Pielstick PC2.6B diesel engine generator (9.6 MWe) installed at the UAF Atkinson Power Plant. The intent was to convert the diesel engine to operate in a dual fuel mode, firing both syngas and tars/oils. As the project progressed, Fairbanks Morse Engine (FME), current licensee for the Colt-Pielstick engine line, was not able to develop a modification package for the engine to allow for syngas firing. Although this type of modification is available for firing natural gas, the capability does not extend to syngas. Western Energy Systems, distributor for Innio Jenbacher, was able to offer the Jenbacher Model JMS620 engine. After review of available options, the project team selected a design configuration using two Jenbacher engines rated at 1965 kWe each to fire the syngas, with the oils/tars directed to the Colt Pielstick diesel to be blended with ultra-low sulfur diesel oil (ULSD). The Jenbacher engines are expected to operate at continuous base load, with some load-following ability, while the existing diesel engine will operate in grid support service, with loads varying from a nominal 25% to 100%. An annual capacity factor for the diesel engine is projected to be between 50% and 60%. The overall gasifier and gas clean-up system is sized to produce enough syngas to adequately fuel three Jenbacher Engines for a nominal power output of 5.9 MWe, but this study assumes that only two Jenbacher engines will be installed due to space constraints in the Atkinson Power Plant, and because of expected air emission permit limitations. There is still potential that the excess syngas capacity equivalent to about 2 MWe could be used as supplemental fuel for the DEG. The exhaust from the Jenbacher engines is passed through heat recovery units to generate low pressure steam, thereby providing a significant portion of the steam required for operating the gasifier. The overall performance of the HMI gasifier/engine configuration is summarized as follows: 1) Overall electric efficiency, Jenbacher and diesel engines, based on gasifier fuel production (syngas and pyrolysis liquids) is 35.2% LHV, 2) Overall cogenerating efficiency (electricity plus steam), based on gasifier fuel production (syngas and pyrolysis liquids) is 54.8% LHV, 3) Overall electric efficiency, Jenbacher and diesel engines, based on coal input, is 29.6% LHV, and 4) Overall cogenerating efficiency, electricity plus steam, based on coal input is 46.0%. This project is estimated to have a Bare Erected Cost (BEC) of $\$$ 33.4 million and a Total Plant Cost (TPC) of $\$$ 45.7 million. Based on the original scope, sending both the clean syngas and the oils and tars to the existing diesel engine, the BEC and TPC values would have been $\$$ 23.3 million and $\$$ 32.1 million, respectively. A variable Cost of Electricity (COE) is calculated to reflect only those costs that will be incurred by incremental operation of the system for the HMI gasifier/Jenbacher engine combination. Operation of the diesel engine is determined separately. The variable COE values are: Case 1: 100% Usibelli Coal: (a) HMI gasifier/Jenbacher Engines -- 8.3 cents/kWh; (b) Diesel Engine -- 20.2 cents/kWh, and Case 2: 80% Usibelli Coal + 20% wood chips (proportion based on Btu input, LHV basis): (a) HMI Gasifier/Jenbacher -- 13.7 cents/kWh; (b) Diesel Engine -- 20.2 cents/kWh. The incremental cost of operating the gasifier/Jenbacher system increases with co-firing of wood chips due to the high cost of this material, over five times as costly as Usibelli coal delivered to the Atkinson Power building. The diesel cost is constant as the oils and tars are priced at the same value as the ULSD for the purposes of fueling the diesel engine. Section 8 of this report provides details of the O&M costs. The overall power system is configured to be modular and scalable to provide a wide range of generating capacity using the same components. This allows for reduction in cost, risk, schedule time to engineer and construct, and provides some degree of repeatability for air permitting.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗