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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2026

Towards robust laser beam propagation in atmospheric turbulence

High-fidelity optical propagation through the atmosphere is essential for free-space optical technologies, including laser-based remote sensing and optical communication. However, atmospheric turbulence severely distorts beams and compromises system performance. In this work, we employ hypergeometric-Gaussian (HyGG) vortex beams as probes to characterize and mitigate atmospheric turbulence. Using over 250,000 experimental and simulated frames, we show that refining the power spectrum density (PSD) can reduce numerical prediction errors by up to 79.8%. Concurrently, experimental observations supported by numerical simulations demonstrate that HyGG beams exhibit superior turbulence resilience across multiple metrics compared to conventional Gaussian beams, particularly in their ability to withstand over 5 times stronger turbulence while maintaining similar intensity fluctuations. These dual investigations, on both turbulence mitigation and robust beam solutions, converge to form a unified strategy for enhancing free-space optical system performance. Collectively, our findings provide new insights into light–turbulence interactions and highlight the practical utility of vortex beams under atmospheric conditions.

Zhang, Boyu↗

DOE OSTI2020

Characterizing Ocean Acidification and Atmospheric Emission caused by Methane Released from Gas Hydrate Systems along the US Atlantic Margin (Final Report)

To assess the environmental impact of decomposing gas hydrates, this project characterized the atmospheric emission and ocean acidification associated with seafloor-released methane along the U.S. Atlantic Margin. This project leveraged the newly discovered seafloor seeps in this region, many of which are located near the landward limit of gas hydrate stability, to investigate the fate and environmental impact of methane once released from the seafloor. Several research directions were pursued during these investigations. First, high-spatial resolution surface surveys were conducted to characterize the degree to which sea-to-air emission of methane is correlated with acoustically detected seafloor bubble emissions. Second, the natural isotopic signatures of both radiocarbon and δ 13 C were measured throughout the water column to observe if seafloor-released methane was detected in surface waters or if it was replaced by a different source. Third, the extent of methane oxidation in the water column was constrained to assess the ability of this process to mitigate atmospheric methane emissions. Fourth, since aerobic methane oxidation ultimately converts methane to carbon dioxide, the extent of ocean acidification relating to this process was assessed. Ultimately, this project was conducted in four stages. Stage one involved preparations for the research expedition along the U.S. Atlantic Margin. This involved calibrating, modifying, and validating equipment needed for sample and data collection in this unique environment. Stage two involved executing the at-sea science. This research was conducted from 25 August to 5 September 2017 on the R/V Hugh R. Sharp. This expedition left from Lewes, Delaware and investigated the continental slope from approximately this latitude down to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Third, any samples unanalyzed on the research vessel were returned to the laboratory and measured. Fourth, the data were interpreted, and publications and presentations were prepared.

03 NATURAL GAS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Surface-Initiated Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization Using Hydrogel Reactors

Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) is a controlled radical polymerization method that enables the synthesis of tailored polymeric materials with low dispersity, highlighting its immense potential for green fabrication of advanced materials. However, its broader implementation is limited by challenges in product isolation, maintaining catalyst activity, and mitigating atmospheric sensitivity arising from oxygen-sensitive metal catalysts. Here, gelatin hydrogels (GHs) are introduced as a soft “reactor” matrix for interfacial ATRP, operating with minimal metal-catalyst loading while exhibiting possibly an organoreductive behavior. This strategy leverages activator regeneration via electron transfer through a ligand–metal charge-transfer (LMCT) mechanism to reduce oxidized metal catalysts within the GH network. Polymerization is evaluated by growing polymer brushes at an active interface formed between GHs swollen in monomer solution and an initiating surface, and sequential growth experiments confirmed that GH-mediated ATRP preserves living character. Under UV illumination, LMCT is activated, producing polymers both at the desired interface and within the GH bulk. UV–Vis spectroscopy revealed active reduction of Cu(II) to Cu(I) along with concentration-dependent complex formation, indicating dynamic coordination chemistry within the hydrogel. The redox-active arginine- and glutamic acid-rich gelatin backbone coordinates and reduces the metal center, enabling ATRP at ppm-level catalyst concentrations. While polymerization proceeds in GH-Cu(II) reactors, adding external mobile ligands to the GH results in longer polymer brushes. Here, the results reported here are exploratory. More experiments are needed to characterize polymer brush growth in GHs and compare it to conventional surface-initiated polymerization in solution.

Absorption↗

DOE OSTI2021

CERES: CRISPR Engineering for the Rapid Enhancement of Strains

Previous strain development efforts for cyanobacteria have failed to achieve the necessary productivities needed to support economic biofuel production. We proposed to develop CRISPR Engineering for Rapid Enhancement of Strains (CERES). We developed genetic and computational tools to enable future high-throughput screening of CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) libraries in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002, including: (1) Operon- SEQer: an ensemble of algorithms for predicting operon pairs using RNA-seq data, (2) experimental characterization and machine learning prediction of gRNA design rules for CRISPRi, and (3) a shuttle vector for gene expression. These tools lay the foundation for CRISPR library screening to develop cyanobacterial strains that are optimized for growth or metabolite production under a wide range of environmental conditions. The optimization of cyanobacterial strains will directly advance U.S. energy and climate security by enabling domestic biofuel production while simultaneously mitigating atmospheric greenhouse gases through photoautotrophic fixation of carbon dioxide.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Editorial: Microbial C1 Metabolism and Biotechnology

Archaea and bacteria with the capacity to utilize one-carbon (C1) molecules as carbon and energy sources are widespread across the planet and are important players in many biogeochemical processes. As such, they occupy an array of diverse anaerobic and aerobic niches and perform unique metabolisms that enable the utilization of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), formate (HCOOH), methanol (CH 3 OH), and methane (CH 4 ) for growth. Several industrial processes have been developed that leverage these microbes for the targeted conversion of anthropogenic waste gases that contain C1 molecules, including natural gas (CH 4 ), anaerobic digestion-derived biogas (CH 4 and CO 2 ), industrial flue gas (CO 2 and CO), and syngas (CO 2 , CO, and H 2 ) (Figure 1). Further, there is increasing interest in electrochemical reduction of CO 2 to CO, CH 4 , and intermediates with increased solubility compared to gaseous C1 molecules (formate and methanol) using electrons derived from renewable sources like wind, solar, or hydrothermal systems to mitigate atmospheric greenhouse gas. Thus, C1-utilizing microbes will likely play an integral role in biotechnologies that are part of a sustainable, circular bioeconomy. However, fundamental knowledge gaps into the metabolism and physiology of these microbes exist that limit their utility as biocatalysts for carbon-efficient biomanufacturing. This special topic presents studies focused on the fundamental aspects of C1 metabolism in diverse microbial systems with the ability to convert anthropogenic greenhouse gases into valuable products.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Deeply Rooted: Evaluating Plant Rooting Depth as a Means for Enhanced Soil Carbon Sequestration (Full Technical Report)

Soils store three times as much carbon (C) as the atmosphere, but are not at capacity, and enhanced soil C storage is considered an essential strategy to mitigate rising atmospheric CO 2 levels. Agricultural soils have experienced substantial C loss in the past century due to poor agricultural practices and erosion. A shift towards deep-rooting crops and low-impact soil management could potentially increase long-term sequestration of C fixed by plants and stored in their root tissues, particularly for crops that have naturally deep root systems (>1 meter). A substantial amount of the CO 2 taken up by plants is allocated to their root systems, and because C deposited in deep soil layers has a longer residence time (up to millennia, in contrast to C deposited in topsoils), C increases at depth may have better long-term C sequestration potential than topsoils. However, the accrual, turnover, and stabilization of C in subsoils is a critical knowledge gap. We investigated a deeply rooted plant, switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), as a means of increasing carbon stocks in marginal and agricultural soils. We hypothesized that deep (>30 cm) SOC stocks would be greater under bioenergy crops relative to stocks under shallow-rooted conventional crop cover. To test this hypothesis, we compared soil depth profiles beneath deeply rooted switchgrass (cultivated for 4-30 years) and paired shallowrooted annual controls. We studied 12 field sites, 3 that were collected in 2018 before the start of the project as part a Department of Energy (DOE) Sustainable Biofuels study, and 9 that we collected in 2019 on a national field sampling campaign across the eastern US. In our publication from the 2018 study, which was written in collaboration with the LLNL Soil Microbiome Scientific Focus Area (SFA), we found that C stocks increased under switchgrass, but that the increases were dependent on soil texture. In the 2019 study, we found that carbon accrual tended to occur most consistently in low C soil in the southern US, which could indicate that perennial grasses may be a viable strategy to increase SOC in marginals soils in this region. We have published two studies from the 2019 sampling campaign thus far, we measured microbial growth parameters that will aid in modeling subsoil carbon cycling, and we found that switchgrass appears to move water upward in the soil profile and could promote drought tolerance, which a phenomenon commonly performed by trees known as ‘hydraulic redistribution;’ our study is the first to show this can occur in deep-rooted grasses. Finally, we published a modeling paper in collaboration with the LLNL Soil Microbiome SFA, where we found that poorly crystalline minerals are abundant and strongly correlated with organic C in geographically limited zones with enhanced weathering rates. Our results will inform technological development in the agricultural carbon sequestration sector as well as future negative emissions policies.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗

DOE OSTI2021

Deeply Rooted: Evaluating Plant Rooting Depth as a Means for Enhanced Soil Carbon Sequestration (Abbreviated Final Report)

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Analysis of bipolar membranes for electrochemical CO 2 capture from air and oceanwater

Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) must be removed from the atmosphere to mitigate the negative effects of climate change. However, the most scalable methods for removing CO 2 from the air require heat from fossil-fuel combustion to produce pure CO 2 and continuously regenerate the sorbent. Bipolar-membrane electrodialysis (BPM-ED) is a promising technology that uses renewable electricity to dissociate water into acid and base to regenerate bicarbonate-based CO 2 capture solutions, such as those used in chemical loops of direct-air-capture (DAC) processes, and in direct-ocean capture (DOC) to promote atmospheric CO 2 drawdown via decarbonization of the shallow ocean. In this study, we develop an experimentally validated 1D model for the electrochemical regeneration of CO 2 from bicarbonate-based carbon capture solutions and seawater using BPM-ED. For DAC, our experimental and computational results demonstrate that pH swings induced by BPM water dissociation drive the formation of CO 2 at the cation-exchange layer|catholyte interface with energy-intensities of less than 150 kJ mol -1 . However, high rates of bubble formation increase energy intensity at current densities >100 mA cm -2 . Correspondingly, accelerating water dissociation catalysis and enacting bubble removal could enable CO 2 recovery at energy intensities <100 kJ mol -1 and current densities >100 mA cm -2 . For DOC, mass transport limitations associated with low carbon concentrations in oceanwater suggest that DOC is best suited for clean production of acid and base usable in downstream processes. Further, these results provide design principles for industrial-scale CO 2 recovery using BPM-ED.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Controlled thermal pre-treatment of ZMG232G10® for corrosion mitigation under simulated SOFC interconnect exposure conditions

The IT-SOFC candidate interconnect material ZMG232G10® was thermally pre-treated in air and in H 2 – 3% H 2 O to mitigate dual atmosphere corrosion. Bare and pre-treated steel samples were exposed to a dual atmosphere exposure condition (dry air/metal/4% H 2 – N 2 (bal.) + 3% H 2 O) for 500h at 600°C. Corrosion products and oxide morphology developed on the air-exposed surfaces were analyzed. Pre-treatments of the metal in oxidizing (air) and reducing (H 2 – 3% H 2 O) gas atmospheres provide improved passivation against dual atmosphere corrosion compared to bare steel. Further, the uniform and iron-free oxide scale developed during the pre-treatment of alloy in the low pO 2 H 2 – 3% H 2 O gas atmosphere provides an effective diffusion barrier against the outward transport of cations and oxidation of iron observed under dual atmosphere conditions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Carbon Dioxide Conversion to Nanomaterials: Methods, Applications, and Challenges

Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emission is one of the biggest global threats that we are confronted with in the 21st century. A lack of prompt action to mitigate the atmospheric CO 2 level could lead to global catastrophic events. As a result of the significance of the aforementioned threat, multiple nations have agreed to enact carbon capture, storage, utilization, and sequestration (CCUS) technologies at academic and industrial scales with the aim of lowering the atmospheric CO 2 level. Although there are many reviews on CCUS technologies, there is a lack of comprehensive review on CO 2 conversion to more economically valuable products, such as nanomaterials. Carbon dioxide capture and conversion into nanomaterials is an interesting research topic in many ways because it contributes to our fundamental knowledge of material conversion, provides alternative ways to reduce atmospheric pollution, and yields lucrative products, which has not been explored broadly. Aside from the positive outcomes, we have a moral obligation to rectify a global threat caused by anthropogenic emission. Herein, we present current methods of converting CO 2 into organic and inorganic nanomaterials with a focus on operating conditions and challenges as well as the potential of nanomaterials in specifically biomedical applications as opposed to extensively reviewed energy-related uses. Furthermore, our review emphasizes the toxicity issues related to using such nanomaterials in biological settings based on literature and other comparable studies.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

SPT-3G D1: Constraints on inflationary gravitational waves with two years of SPT-3G data

Here, we present a measurement of the 𝐵-mode polarization power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies at 32 ≤ ℓ < 502 for three bands centered at 95, 150, and 220 GHz using data from the SPT-3G receiver on the South Pole Telescope. This work uses SPT-3G observations from the 2019 and 2020 winter observing seasons of a ∼1500 deg 2 patch of sky that directly overlaps with fields observed with the BICEP/Keck family of telescopes and covers part of the proposed Simons Observatory and CMB-S4 deep fields. Employing new techniques for mitigating polarized atmospheric noise, the SPT-3G data demonstrates a white noise level of 9.3 (6.7) μ⁢K−arcmin at ℓ ∼500 for the 95 GHz (150 GHz) data, with a 1/ℓ noise knee at ℓ = 128 (182). We fit the observed six auto- and cross-frequency 𝐵-mode power spectra to a model including lensed Λ⁢CDM 𝐵-modes and a combination of Galactic and extragalactic foregrounds. This work characterizes foregrounds in the vicinity of the BICEP/Keck survey area, finding foreground power consistent with that reported by the BICEP/Keck collaboration within the same region and a factor of ∼3 higher power over the full SPT-3G survey area. Using SPT-3G data over the BICEP/Keck survey area, we place a 95% upper limit on the tensor-to-scalar ratio of 𝑟 <0.25 and find the statistical uncertainty on 𝑟 to be 𝜎⁡(𝑟) = 0.067.

Zebrowski, J. A. [University of Chicago; Universit↗

DOE OSTI2021

Biological mechanisms may contribute to soil carbon saturation patterns

Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) storage is a key strategy to mitigate rising atmospheric CO 2 , yet SOC pools often appear to saturate, or increase at a declining rate, as carbon (C) inputs increase. Soil C saturation is commonly hypothesized to result from the finite amount of reactive mineral surface area available for retaining SOC, and is accordingly represented in SOC models as a physicochemically determined SOC upper limit. However, mineral-associated SOC is largely microbially generated. In this perspective, we present the hypothesis that apparent SOC saturation patterns could emerge as a result of ecological constraints on microbial biomass—for example, via competition or predation—leading to reduced C flow through microbes and a reduced rate of mineral-associated SOC formation as soil C inputs increase. Microbially explicit SOC models offer an opportunity to explore this hypothesis, yet most of these models predict linear microbial biomass increases with C inputs and insensitivity of SOC to input rates. Synthesis of 54 C addition studies revealed constraints on microbial biomass as C inputs increase. Different hypotheses limiting microbial density were embedded in a three-pool SOC model without explicit limits on mineral surface area. As inputs increased, the model demonstrated either no change, linear, or apparently saturating increases in mineral-associated and particulate SOC pools. Taken together, our results suggest that microbial constraints are common and could lead to reduced mineral-associated SOC formation as input rates increase. We conclude that SOC responses to altered C inputs—or any environmental change—are influenced by the ecological factors that limit microbial populations, allowing for a wider range of potential SOC responses to stimuli. Understanding how biotic versus abiotic factors contribute to these patterns will better enable us to predict and manage soil C dynamics.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Biological Carbon Sequestration for Climate and Soil Health

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Biological Carbon Sequestration for Climate and Soil Health

The United States recently launched the Net Zero World Initiative on decarbonization. As temperatures and sea levels rise, strong action is needed to mitigate high atmospheric CO 2 levels. In response to this need, a joint workshop between the US Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) was convened to assess the challenges and opportunities within biological carbon (C) capture. The virtual workshop on Biological Carbon Sequestration for Climate and Soil Health focused on three aspects of biological C capture research: natural systems, engineered systems, and modeling. For this workshop, the scope of natural systems included unmanaged (e.g., grasslands, wetlands, natural forests) and managed (e.g., agricultural lands, commercial forests, forest biofuels) ecosystems. The engineered systems group covered topics in genetically modified plants and microbes, synthetic microbiomes, and altered plant–microbe interactions for enhancing C capture, storage, and utilization. The modeling group focused on computational tools and data collection to predict and assess the effectiveness of new biocarbon sequestration advances. Participant expertise included plant and microbial systems biology, synthetic biology, soil biogeochemistry, and techno-economic analysis. Together, participants outlined key scientific advances in support of biological C capture and storage. Among the major findings of the meeting were the need to better measure C flux within natural, agricultural, and fabricated ecosystems for experimentation; better understand the role of soil composition, plant roots, and the rhizosphere (i.e., the soil surrounding the plant root) in the underground storage of organic C; and design plant–microbe systems for maximal C storage.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Constraints on Inflationary Gravitational Waves with Two Years of SPT-3G Data

We present a measurement of the $B$-mode polarization power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies at 32 $\le$$\ell$$<$ 502 for three bands centered at 95, 150, and 220 GHz using data from the SPT-3G receiver on the South Pole Telescope. This work uses SPT-3G observations from the 2019 and 2020 winter observing seasons of a $\sim$1500 deg$^2$ patch of sky that directly overlaps with fields observed with the BICEP/Keck family of telescopes, and covers part of the proposed Simons Observatory and CMB-S4 deep fields. Employing new techniques for mitigating polarized atmospheric noise, the SPT-3G data demonstrates a white noise level of 9.3 (6.7) $\mu$K-arcmin at $\ell \sim 500$ for the 95 GHz (150 GHz) data, with a $1/\ell$ noise knee at $\ell$=128 (182). We fit the observed six auto- and cross-frequency $B$-mode power spectra to a model including lensed $\Lambda$CDM $B$-modes and a combination of Galactic and extragalactic foregrounds. This work characterizes foregrounds in the vicinity of the BICEP/Keck survey area, finding foreground power consistent with that reported by the BICEP/Keck collaboration within the same region, and a factor of $\sim$ 3 higher power over the full SPT-3G survey area. Using SPT-3G data over the BICEP/Keck survey area, we place a 95% upper limit on the tensor-to-scalar ratio of $r < 0.25$ and find the statistical uncertainty on $r$ to be $\sigma(r) = 0.067$.

Zebrowski, J. A. [Chicago U., KICP; Chicago U., As↗

DOE OSTI2021

Revisiting “Additional Carbon”: Tracking Atmosphere–Ecosystem Carbon Exchange to Establish Mitigation and Negative Emissions From Bio-Based Systems

Climate stabilization plans rely heavily on advanced bioenergy and bioproducts for substitution of fossil-based energy sources and materials, and increasingly, for negative emissions via the direct sequestration of biogenic carbon. Yet, there remain persistent, largely unresolved critiques of bioenergy assessment methodology, particularly in the areas of land use and biogenic carbon accounting. The concept of “additional carbon” calls for evaluating the climate performance of bio-based systems by whether feedstock production creates measurable new local agro-ecosystem uptake of carbon from the atmosphere. This concept is challenging to operationalize for first-generation biofuels, and has largely been advanced as a negative critique. However, carbon additionality is more straightforward to establish—and less critical to overall system mitigation performance—in advanced bioenergy systems. In this Perspective, I review the additional carbon critique, and why it is analytically challenging to address in first-generation biofuel systems based on conventional food crops with large existing markets. Next, I make a case that carbon additionality (1) is more readily achievable with cellulosic feedstocks, (2) is more directly observable for dedicated biomass crops, and (3) is not a strict requirement for achieving net mitigation in carbon-negative bio-based systems. I end by discussing how centering atmosphere–ecosystem carbon exchanges in bio-based system assessment could create new opportunities for enterprise-scale performance monitoring and verification, augmenting and diversifying the current reliance on model-based life-cycle assessment approaches.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Cyclone Fani: the tug-of-war between regional warming and anthropogenic aerosol effects

Before Cyclone Amphan took place in 2020, Cyclone Fani (May 2019) is the strongest pre-monsoon cyclone in the Bay of Bengal (BOB) since 1991, killing 90 people in eastern India and Bangladesh while causing US$1.81 billion of damages. Fani developed during a period of high concentration of anthropogenic aerosols in the BOB with abnormally high sea surface temperature (SST), thereby presenting an opportunity to understand the compound effects of atmospheric aerosols and regional climate warming on a tropical cyclone. A quantitative attribution analysis was conducted using the Weather Research and Forecasting model with chemistry (WRF-Chem) run at the convection-permitting (4 km) grid spacing, accompanied by an ensemble of coarser-resolution simulations to quantify the uncertainty. The removal of post-1990 trends in the tropospheric variables and SST from WRF-Chem's initial conditions (IC) and boundary conditions (BC, including the lateral and lower boundary conditions) resulted in a reduction of cyclone precipitation by about 51% during the 5 d of April 28-May 2. The removal of tropospheric warming shows approximately twice as strong an effect on Fani (39% reduction in precipitation) as that of SST warming (22% reduction). When aerosol's direct and indirect effects were removed from the simulations, i.e., no aerosol influence on radiation and cloud microphysics, Fani initially strengthened but later weakened, as measured by geopotential height and precipitation amounts. These results suggest that aerosol and its interaction with the atmosphere acted to mitigate the strengthening effect of anthropogenic warming on Fani, but was not strong enough to entirely counteract it. Although the ensemble of coarser simulations appears to overestimate Cyclone Fani in terms of precipitation, the direction of the effects is in agreement with that obtained from the 4 km simulations. Given the increasing anthropogenic aerosols in the BOB, future attribution studies using more sophisticated dynamical aerosol models on BOB tropical cyclones are urged.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Plant-based CO 2 drawdown and storage as SiC

Since the 1950's the Earth's natural carbon cycle has not sufficiently sequestrated excess atmospheric CO 2 contributed by human activities. CO 2 levels rose above 400 ppm in 2013 and are forecasted to exceed 500 ppm by 2070, a level last experienced during the Paleogene period 25–65 MYA. While humanity benefits from the extraction and combustion of carbon from Earth's crust, we have overlooked the impact on global climate change. Here, we present a strategy to mine atmospheric carbon to mitigate CO 2 emissions and create economically lucrative green products. We employ an artificial carbon cycle where agricultural plants capture CO 2 and the carbon is transformed into silicon carbide (SiC), a valuable commercial material. By carefully quantifying the process we show that 14% of plant-sequestered carbon is stored as SiC and estimate the scale needed for this process to have a global impact.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗