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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Modularization of Small Modular Reactor Facilities: Physical Protection Recommendations

U.S. nuclear power facilities face increasing challenges in meeting dynamic security requirements caused by evolving and expanding threats while keeping costs reasonable to make nuclear energy competitive. In consideration of the economic viability of small modular reactor (SMR) facilities, many designers and utilities are considering a modular approach to the construction and operation of these facilities. This modular approach considers building and operating a first unit; once the first reactor is in operation, construction will begin on a second reactor. This process would allow the vendor or utility to ensure production of energy and financial income while the second reactor is under construction. This project evaluates the feasibility of modular construction in terms of physical protection and identifies several recommendations for vendors and utilities considering this approach. To conduct this evaluation, a hypothetical three-unit SMR facility was developed, a physical protection system (PPS) was considered for the design, and a hypothetical design basis threat (DBT) was used to evaluate this PPS. Multiple outsider sabotage scenarios were examined, with adversary team sizes ranging from 4-to-8 to determine security system effectiveness. The results of this work will influence PPS designs and facility designs for U.S. domestic SMRs. This work will also demonstrate how a series of experimental and modeling capabilities across the Department of Energy (DOE) complex can impact the design and completion of security-by-design (SeBD) for SMRs considering modular construction. The conclusions and recommendations in this document may be applicable to all SMR designs.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Fuel Cycle Performance of Thermal Spectrum Small Modular Reactors

Small modular reactors may offer potential benefits, such as enhanced operational flexibility. However, it is vital to understand the holistic impact of small modular reactors on the nuclear fuel cycle and fuel cycle performance. The focus of this paper is on the fuel cycle impacts of light water small modular reactors in a once-through fuel cycle with low-enriched uranium fuel. A key objective of this paper is to describe preliminary reactor core physics and fuel cycle analyses conducted in support of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy Fuel Cycle Options Campaign. Challenges with small modular reactors include: increased neutron leakage, fewer assemblies in the core (and therefore fewer degrees of freedom in the core design), complex enrichment and burnable absorber loadings, full power operation with inserted control rods, the potential for frequent load-following operation, and shortened core height. Each of these will impact the achievable discharge burn-up in the reactor and the fuel cycle performance. This paper summarizes the results of an expert elicitation focused on developing a list of the factors relevant to small modular reactor fuel, core, and operation that will impact fuel cycle performance. Preliminary scoping analyses were performed using a regulatory-grade reactor core simulator. The hypothetical light water small modular reactor considered in these preliminary scoping studies is a cartridge type one-batch core with 4.9% enrichment. Some core parameters, such as the size of the reactor and general assembly layout, are similar to an example small modular reactor concept from industry. The high-level issues identified and preliminary scoping calculations in this paper are intended to inform on potential fuel cycle impacts of one-batch thermal spectrum SMRs. In particular, this paper highlights the impact of increased neutron leakage and reduced number of batches on the achievable burn-up of the reactor. Fuel cycle performance metrics for a small modular reactor are compared to a conventional three-batch light water reactor in the following areas: nuclear waste management, environmental impact, and resource utilization. Metrics performance for a small modular reactor are degraded for mass of spent nuclear fuel and high level waste disposed, mass of depleted uranium disposed, land use per energy generated, and carbon emission per energy generated

Worrall, Andrew↗
DOE OSTI2023

Book Chapter: Small Modular Reactors

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) have been a very promising development in nuclear power over the last two decades. SMRs are defined as nuclear reactors with a power output of less than 300 MWe. This is in comparison to gigawatt-size reactors, which can have electrical output of 1000–1500 MWe or more. This chapter will consist of two major sections. The first will be a detailed summary of the small modular reactor designs being proposed around the world. This section will focus on those that are the furthest along in their development, but will also include some information about the wide variety of proposed designs that require significant research and development. The second part will be a discussion of the remaining challenges to the adoption of SMRs as a major energy source. SMRs are not a new concept, but they do represent a new vision for an older concept. These reactors have the potential to become a major source of energy in the near future. The development of small, modular designs can help promote the adoption of nuclear energy by reducing upfront costs, reducing the financial risk associated with nuclear power, and the barriers to entry. However, the adoption of SMRs is not without challenges. Regulatory and licensing changes to address the unique benefits and concerns associated with SMRs will continue to be a challenge as regulators adapt to the unique features emerging from the design process. The development of new instrumentation and control systems is an ongoing issue. And economics is possibly the most significant challenge, with high construction costs, cheap natural gas, and government subsidies, combining to result in significant financial risk associated with adopting nuclear generation.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2012

Human Reliability Considerations for Small Modular Reactors

Small modular reactors (SMRs) are a promising approach to meeting future energy needs. Although the electrical output of an individual SMR is relatively small compared to that of typical commercial nuclear plants, they can be grouped to produce as much energy as a utility demands. Furthermore, SMRs can be used for other purposes, such as producing hydrogen and generating process heat. The design characteristics of many SMRs differ from those of current conventional plants and may require a distinct concept of operations. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) conducted research to examine the human factors engineering and the operational aspects of SMRs. The research identified thirty potential human-performance issues that should be considered in the NRC's reviews of SMR designs and in future research activities. The purpose of this report is to illustrate how the issues can support SMR probabilistic risk analyses and their review by identifying potential human failure events for a subset of the issues. As part of addressing the human contribution to plant risk, human reliability analysis practitioners identify and quantify the human failure events that can negatively impact normal or emergency plant operations. The results illustrated here can be generalized to identify additional human failure events for the issues discussed and can be applied to those issues not discussed in this report.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Bison Analyses of Fuel Forms used in Small Modular Reactors

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are actively being pursued by the international nuclear industry. The Bison fuel performance code developed at Idaho National Laboratory is a tool capable of analyzing the thermo-mechanical response and species diffusion for a wide variety of fuel types under both normal and accident conditions. Two of the fuel types considered for a wide range of SMRs are TRISO fuel particles and metallic fuel. This paper provides an overview of the capabilities in Bison for these fuel types with a few example studies relevant for the SMR industry.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Scaling methodologies and similarity analysis for thermal hydraulics test facility development for water-cooled small modular reactor

Small modular reactors (SMRs) represent a promising option for providing clean and sustainable energy due to their potential for enhanced safety, reduced capital costs, and increased siting flexibility. However, new reactor systems require the development and operation of representative scaled-down test facilities to support the verification and validation of system computer codes and models. Here this study reviews the research on scaling methodologies and similarity principles pivotal in developing non-nuclear integral effects test and separate effects test facilities for water-cooled SMRs. The study focuses on a review of the scaling methods, similarity approaches, and possible challenges posed by the unique and compact design features of integral-pressurized water reactor-type SMRs, and their representative test facilities. This study also reviews previous research related to scaling and similarity methodologies and provides insights into design considerations for achieving prototypic conditions in test facilities. The findings and recommendations emphasize the broader impact of appropriate scaling and similarity principles to ensure meaningful and transferable results from non-nuclear test facilities to accelerate the safe and efficient deployment of next-generation water-cooled SMRs.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Unique safety features and licensing requirements of the NuScale small modular reactor

Small modular reactors (SMR) offer a novel approach to the construction and operation of nuclear power plants. The NuScale VOYGR™ plant uses a simplified SMR design that is based on proven light-water reactor technology with substantial improvements in nuclear safety. It consists of a 250 MWt reactor core housed with other primary system components in an integral reactor pressure vessel surrounded by a steel containment vessel, all of which is immersed in a large pool of water that also serves as the ultimate heat sink. At the core of the NuScale safety case are three primary safety systems: the decay heat removal system, the emergency core cooling system, and the containment. The ability of the NuScale Power Module (NPM) passive safety systems to remove core decay heat for an unlimited duration is demonstrated through analysis of a beyond-design-basis extended loss of AC power with no replenishment of water to the ultimate heat sink or operator actions. The NuScale methodology to evaluate an indefinite loss of AC power uses the proprietary NRELAP5 systems analysis computer code. Analysis results show that the reactor coolant system liquid level above the core is maintained and that containment pressure remains below the vessel design pressure. Once full passive air cooling is established, containment pressure and temperature will decrease over time with decreasing core decay heat. NuScale received standard design approval in September 2020 and design certification in January 2023 for its 50 MWe NPM configured as a 12 module plant. NuScale is currently seeking standard design approval to increase its core power to 250 MWt, nominally 77 MWe per module, in a 6-module plant (VOYGR™-6) configuration. The high-level safety of NuScale’s SMR technology is foundational to a new standard of nuclear power plant resilience.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Design Basis Model for Hosting Small Modular Reactors

An aggressive transition from fossil fuels to other types of energy implies the need to construct a large number of nuclear power plants in the near future. However, the real and perceived risks of nuclear energy remain a significant impediment to this transition. This paper describes a comprehensive work process that combines the rigor of model-based systems engineering (MBSE) with 1) the Idaho National Laboratory's (INL) decades of experience with small reactors and with 2) modern project delivery processes. The objective is to reduce the risk of building new facilities or converting existing facilities to nuclear power generation.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2013

Requirements for Prognostic Health Management of Passive Components in Advanced Small Modular Reactors

Advanced small modular reactors (aSMRs), which are based on modularization of advanced reactor concepts, may provide a longer-term alternative to traditional light-water reactors and near term small modular reactors (SMRs), which are based on integral pressurized water reactor (iPWR) concepts. aSMRs are conceived for applications in remote locations and for diverse missions that include providing process or district heating, water desalination, and hydrogen production. Several challenges exist with respect to cost-effective operations and maintenance (O&M) of aSMRs, including the impacts of aggressive operating environments and modularity, and limiting these costs and staffing needs will be essential to ensuring the economic feasibility of aSMR deployment. In this regard, prognostic health management (PHM) systems have the potential to play a vital role in supporting the deployment of aSMR systems. This paper identifies requirements and technical gaps associated with implementation of PHM systems for passive aSMR components.

Nondestructive Evaluation↗
DOE OSTI2013

Health Monitoring to Support Advanced Small Modular Reactors

Advanced small modular reactors (aSMRs) are based on advanced reactor concepts, some of which were promoted by the Generation IV International Forum, and are being considered for diverse missions including desalination of water, production of hydrogen, etc. While the existing fleet of commercial nuclear reactors provides baseload electricity, it is conceivable that aSMRs could be implemented for both baseload and load following applications. The effect of diverse operating missions and unit modularity on plant operations and maintenance (O&M) is not fully understood and limiting these costs will be essential to successful deployment of aSMRs. Integrated health monitoring concepts are proposed to support the safe and affordable operation of aSMRs over their lifetime by enabling management of significant in-vessel and in-containment active and passive components.

Advanced Small Modular Reactors↗
DOE OSTI2013

Technical Needs for Enhancing Risk Monitors with Equipment Condition Assessment for Advanced Small Modular Reactors

Advanced small modular reactors (aSMRs) can provide the United States with a safe, sustainable, and carbon-neutral energy source. The controllable day-to-day costs of aSMRs are expected to be dominated by operation and maintenance costs. Health and condition assessment coupled with online risk monitors can potentially enhance affordability of aSMRs through optimized operational planning and maintenance scheduling.

Advanced Small Modular Reactor↗
DOE OSTI2013

Incorporating Equipment Condition Assessment in Risk Monitors for Advanced Small Modular Reactors

Advanced small modular reactors (aSMRs) can complement the current fleet of large light-water reactors in the USA for baseload and peak demand power production and process heat applications (e.g., water desalination, shale oil extraction, hydrogen production). The day-to-day costs of aSMRs are expected to be dominated by operations and maintenance (O&M); however, the effect of diverse operating missions and unit modularity on O&M is not fully understood. These costs could potentially be reduced by optimized scheduling, with risk-informed scheduling of maintenance, repair, and replacement of equipment. Currently, most nuclear power plants have a “living” probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), which reflects the as-operated, as-modified plant and combine event probabilities with population-based probability of failure (POF) for key components. “Risk monitors” extend the PRA by incorporating the actual and dynamic plant configuration (equipment availability, operating regime, environmental conditions, etc.) into risk assessment. In fact, PRAs are more integrated into plant management in today’s nuclear power plants than at any other time in the history of nuclear power. However, population-based POF curves are still used to populate fault trees; this approach neglects the time-varying condition of equipment that is relied on during standard and non-standard configurations. Equipment condition monitoring techniques can be used to estimate the component POF. Incorporating this unit-specific estimate of POF in the risk monitor can provide a more accurate estimate of risk in different operating and maintenance configurations. This enhanced risk assessment will be especially important for aSMRs that have advanced component designs, which don’t have an available operating history to draw from, and often use passive design features, which present challenges to PRA. This paper presents the requirements and technical gaps for developing a framework to integrate unit-specific estimates of POF into risk monitors, resulting in enhanced risk monitors that support optimized operation and maintenance of aSMRs.

Advanced Small Modular Reactors↗
DOE OSTI2019

High-Fidelity Simulation of Flow-Induced Vibrations in Helical Steam Generators for Small Modular Reactors

Flow-induced vibration (FIV) is a widespread problem in energy systems as they rely on fluid movement for energy conversion. Vibrating structures may be damaged as fatigue or wear occur. Given the importance of reliable components in the nuclear industry, FIV has long been a major concern in the safety and operation of nuclear reactors. In particular, nuclear fuel rods and steam generators have been known to suffer from FIV and related failures. In this paper we discuss the use of the computational fluid dynamics code Nek5000 coupled to the structural code Diablo to simulate the flow in helical coil heat exchangers and associated FIV. In particular, one-way coupled calculations are performed, where pressure and tractions data are loaded into the structural model. The main focus of this paper is on validation of this capability. Fluid-only Nek5000 large eddy simulations are first compared against dedicated high-resolution experiments. Then, one-way coupled calculations are performed with Nek5000 and Diablo for two data sets that provide FIV data for validation. These calculations were aimed at simulating available legacy FIV experiments in helical steam generators in the turbulent buffeting regime. In this regime one-way coupling is judged sufficient since the pressure loads do not cause substantial displacements. It is also the most common source of vibration in helical steam generators at the low flows expected in integral pressurized water reactors. We discuss validation of two-way coupled experiments and benchmarks toward the simulation of fluid elastic instability. We briefly discuss the application of these methods to grid-to-rod fretting.

Flow-Induced Vibration↗
DOE OSTI2012

SRS Small Modular Reactors

The small modular reactor program at the Savannah River Site and the Savannah River National Laboratory.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2013

On Enhancing Risk Monitors for Advanced Small Modular Reactors

Advanced small modular reactors (AdvSMRs) can contribute to safe, sustainable, and carbon-neutral energy production. However, the economics of AdvSMRs suffer from the loss of economy-of-scale for both construction and operation. The controllable day-to-day costs of AdvSMRs are expected to be dominated by operations and maintenance (O&M) costs. These expenses could potentially be managed through optimized scheduling of O&M activities for components, reactor modules, power blocks, and the full plant. Accurate, real-time risk assessment with integrated health monitoring of key active components can support scheduling of both online and offline inspection and maintenance activities.

Advanced SMR↗
DOE OSTI2022

Sensitivity analysis of small modular reactor mPower with ATHLET

Small modular reactor (SMR) possesses the characteristics of less radioactive source term, simpler structure, modular design and features like passive safety as well as low risk of proliferation. Developed and designed by Babcock and Wilcox, the mPower reactor is one of pronouncing small modular reactors that adopts the integrated design of the pressurized water reactor, steam generator and a built-in internal control rod drive mechanism. In this paper, the code ATHLET (Analysis of fossil-hydraulics of Leaks and Transients) is used to model the mPower reactor. At the same time, the sensitivity analysis of the core structure and geometric parameters of the pipeline loop, as well as the steady-state simulation and post-exothermic simulation are carried out depending on the given scenarios. In addition, the sensitivity analysis of pressure, temperature and mass flow in the secondary loop is performed. The results of this study will mitigate some of the frequent misunderstanding in the field and will help to better understand the design of SMR and provide basic research data for further research. However, there are limitations in the current research. Considering that the mPower is still in the conceptual design, the established model is only based on the limited public data while detailed parameters are still in myth, which leads to certain level of uncertainties in the calculation. Besides, the research is mainly on the influence of sensitivity analysis under steady state conditions. (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Techno-economic analysis of advanced small modular nuclear reactors

Here, small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs) represent a robust opportunity to develop low-carbon and reliable power with the potential to meet cost parity with conventional power systems. This study presents a detailed, bottom-up economic evaluation of a 12 × 77 MW e (924 MW e total) light-water SMR (LW-SMR) plant, a 4 × 262 MW e (1,048 MW e ) gas-cooled SMR (GC-SMR) plant, and a 5 × 200 MW e (1,000 MW e total) molten salt SMR (MS-SMR) plant. Cost estimates are derived from equipment costs, labor hours, material inputs, and process-engineering models. The advanced SMRs are compared to natural gas combined cycle plants with and without post-combustion carbon capture and a conventional large nuclear reactor. Overnight capital cost (OCC) and levelized cost of energy (LCOE) estimates are developed. The OCC of the LW-SMR, GC-SMR, and MS-SMR are found to be $\$4,844$/kW, $\$4,355$/kW, and $\$3,985$/kW respectively. The LCOE of the LW-SMR, GC-SMR, and MS-SMR are found to be $\$89.6$/MWh, $\$81.5$/MWh, and $\$80.6$/MWh respectively. A Monte Carlo analysis is performed, for which the OCC and construction time of the LW-SMR is found to have a lower mean and standard deviation than a conventional large reactor. The LW-SMR OCC is found to have a mean of $\$5,233$/kW with a standard deviation of $\$658$/kW and a 90 % probability of remaining between $\$4,254$/kW and $\$6,399$/kW, while the construction duration is found to have a mean of 4.5 years with a standard deviation of 0.8 years and a 90 % probability of remaining between 3.4 and 6.0 years. The economic impact of economies of scale, simplification, modularization, and construction time for SMRs are discussed. Additionally, policy implications for direct SMR capital subsidies and the impact of a carbon tax on natural gas emissions are explored.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2012

Overview of the Westinghouse Small Modular Reactor building layout

The Westinghouse Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is an 800 MWt (>225 MWe) integral pressurized water reactor (iPWR), in which all of the components typically associated with the nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) of a nuclear power plant are incorporated within a single reactor pressure vessel. This paper is the third in a series of four papers, which describe the design and functionality of the Westinghouse SMR. It focuses in particular upon the plant building layout and modular design of the Westinghouse SMR. In the development of small modular reactors, the building layout is an area where the safety of the plant can be improved by applying new design approaches. This paper will present an overview of the Westinghouse SMR building layout and indicate how the design features improve the safety and robustness of the plant. The Westinghouse SMR is designed with no shared systems between individual reactor units. The main buildings inside the security fence are the nuclear island, the rad-waste building, the annex building, and the turbine building. All safety related equipment is located in the nuclear island, which is a seismic class 1 building. To further enhance the safety and robustness of the design, the reactor, containment, and most of the safety related equipment are located below grade on the nuclear island. This reduces the possibility of severe damage from external threats or natural disasters. Two safety related ultimate heat sink (UHS) water tanks that are used for decay heat removal are located above grade, but are redundant and physically separated as far as possible for improved safety. The reactor and containment vessel are located below grade in the center of the nuclear island. The rad-waste and other radioactive systems are located on the bottom floors to limit the radiation exposure to personnel. The Westinghouse SMR safety trains are completely separated into four unconnected quadrants of the building, with access between quadrants only allowed above grade. This is an improvement to conventional reactor design since it prevents failures of multiple trains during floods or fires and other external events. The main control room is located below grade, with a remote shutdown room in a different quadrant. All defense in depth systems are placed on the nuclear island, primarily above grade, while the safety systems are located on lower floors. The economics of the Westinghouse SMR challenges the established approach of large Light Water Reactors (LWR) that utilized the economies of scale to reach economic competitiveness. To serve the market expectation of smaller capital investment and cost competitive energy, a modular design approach is implemented within the Westinghouse SMR. The Westinghouse SMR building layout integrates the three basic design constraints of modularization; transportation, handling and module-joining technology. (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗