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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Geospatial Assessments for Nuclear Safeguards Applications with Large Language Models

A multidisciplinary team at Argonne National Laboratory evaluated the ability of large language models (LLMs) to identify geographic locations from open-source text and assessed post-processing measures to strengthen the reliability of those extractions in support of international nuclear safeguards. The study focused on addressing challenges such as toponym ambiguity, imprecise descriptions, and misinformation, which often undermine the accuracy of LLM-derived geospatial assessments. By integrating authoritative geospatial datasets, employing rigorous validation techniques, and leveraging human-in-the-loop processes, the project aimed to enhance the precision, transparency, and reproducibility of geospatial localization workflows. The findings demonstrate that while LLMs exhibit significant potential for accelerating geospatial analysis, their outputs require systematic grounding and verification to ensure reliability in high-stakes applications. This work contributes to the broader field of geospatial intelligence and supports strategic objectives of international organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Identify and Assess Technical Challenges in Safeguards Measurements of Spent Advanced Reactor Fuels

Advanced reactor (AR) designs use various nuclear fuel types that can be significantly different than conventional light-water reactor (LWR) fuels, including differences in sizes, compositions, and chemical forms (e.g., oxide, carbide, metal). Nearly all the proposed AR fuels use high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU), which will have higher enrichments (5–20 wt% 235 U) than LWR fuels (currently limited to <5 wt% 235 U). In advance of the wide use of these new fuel types around the world, international safeguards organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA]) are working with some of the AR vendors to formulate safeguards approaches for these AR fuel cycles. As part of the overall safeguards approach, it is important to identify the potential technical challenges in performing safeguards verification measurements of these AR fuels (both fresh and spent fuels) in advance of the widespread adoption of these new fuel types, because new safeguards technologies can take several years to develop, test, and approve for use. This report documents work performed in fiscal year 2024 based on modeling and simulation to assess the performance of the existing safeguards measurement technologies for irradiated or spent AR fuel elements or items. This work is a continuation of the work performed in fiscal year 2023 that focused on fresh AR fuels. Spent AR fuels have a distinct difference from their LWR counterparts: unlike the spent LWR fuels typically stored in a water-filled pool, some spent AR fuels—such as tristructural-isotropic (TRISO)-based fuels—will most likely be stored in air-filled hot cells. Because most safeguards measurements on spent fuel performed to date have been conducted under water, the air-filled hot cell environment could present unique challenges to safeguards measurements. Fork detector (FDET) and Cerenkov viewing device (CVD) systems have been the two primary instruments used by the IAEA for several decades to measure spent LWR fuel assemblies stored in pools for safeguards verification purposes. Because the lower refractive index of air causes Cerenkov light to be of lower intensity in air than in water, existing CVDs are likely unable to perform safeguards verification measurements for spent fuel stored in an air-filled hot cell, as is the case for the TRISO-based spent fuel elements (e.g., pebbles, graphite fuel blocks). Unlike FDET measurements, CVD measurements do not require fuel be moved, so they are a simpler and faster to take than FDET measurements. The inability to perform CVD measurements on the TRISO-based AR fuel types presents a major technical challenge in the effort to use existing technology to perform safeguards measurements on spent AR fuels. This study was mainly conducted through the modeling and simulation of an FDET or an FDET-like system on five spent AR fuel types, including one metallic fuel type and four TRISO-based fuel types in both pebble and graphite block forms in their respective storage configurations and environments. Because the various AR fuel types have significantly different dimensions, FDET systems must be adapted to accommodate them. Partial defect tests were also simulated in this study to assess the FDET’s ability to detect potential fuel diversions. The FDET measures the fuel’s total passive neutron and gamma emissions. The simulated FDET results from spent AR fuel items are compared against results from a typical spent pressurized water reactor (PWR) assembly. High-purity germanium (HPGe) gamma detector measurements were also simulated for the spent AR fuel types and the PWR assembly because the signature photopeaks have been used in LWR safeguards verifications, although HPGe is usually not used to detect diversions because of the fuel’s self-attenuation effects on those photopeaks. The results indicate that these detectors have significant challenges in performing safeguards measurements of the spent AR fuel items, including incompatibilities between AR fuel items and existing FDETs, lower neutron count rates, lower sensitivities to fuel diversions in certain AR fuel items, and significantly higher interference from a neighboring fuel item when the measurement is performed in air. These results suggest that an alternative technology or significant and timely technology development is needed to perform adequate safeguards measurements of some of these AR fuel items.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Modeling and Simulation Supporting Material Control and Accounting for Advanced Reactors: Task 2: Safeguards Modeling and Simulation Assessment

Commercial interest in advanced reactors for power production in the United States is increasing. A variety of advanced reactor designs are being developed, and many of them use non-traditional fuel forms. Therefore, the material control and accounting (MC&A) methods that will be required for these advanced reactor systems also need to be developed to ensure that the necessary safeguards are implemented. To provide information that can be leveraged to explore different MC&A approaches, three representative advanced reactor types were evaluated from a technical safeguards perspective. These reactor designs were selected to encompass common materials and configurations that could affect safeguards considerations. The three designs evaluated were a molten salt reactor (MSR), a gas-cooled reactor (GCR), and a heat pipe-cooled microreactor.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Developing Digital Twin Visualizations: A Methodology and Case Study on Chemical Separation Processing

As advances in digital engineering continue to push the technological boundaries, digital twin (DT) visualizations for diagnostics and safeguards advancement become much more feasible and practical. DTs generate large and complex data streams that require effective user interfaces to provide monitoring and diagnostic capabilities. Unfortunately, while these frameworks exist, there is not much research on the systematic documentation of human–computer interaction (HCI) for DT visualization. This work presents a dual-mode visualization methodology (two dimensional [2D] graphical user interface dashboard and 3D mixed reality) designed to support diagnostic tasks in DT systems and building on a validated framework and applying established HCI principles. The methodology is demonstrated through a case study of aqueous processing at Idaho National Laboratory, using experimental data from the chemical solvent extraction runs. Our interfaces display real-time alerts and monitoring to inform users of safeguards anomalies. The interfaces use immersive 3D mixed-reality visualization for further system and experiment investigation. This work demonstrates how the systematic application of HCI principles can inform DT visualization design for diagnostic and safeguards applications. While formal user evaluation studies remain as future work, this paper documents the systematic design methodology and demonstrates a proof-of-concept implementation.

3D visualization↗
DOE OSTI2025

Assessment of Self-interrogation Safeguards Signatures for Pebble Bed Reactor Fuel

New reactor designs, such as pebble-bed reactors, present challenges for the safeguarding of fissile material. Due to the multi-pass fuel circulation design and the non-uniform path a pebble may traverse through a pebble-bed reactor, there will be variations in the irradiation history of spent fuel pebbles. The standard approach of estimating actinide quantities based on fission gamma spectra or neutron emission paired with depletion modeling may yield uncertainties too large for safeguards and material accountancy. This project investigated, through modeling and experimentation, the potential of neutron self-interrogation of spent fuel pebbles as an innovative method to implement materials accountability. As an example, our feasibility studies indicate that the mass of U-235, U-238, Pu-239 and Pu-241 can be predicted to 4.1, 0.86, 13 and 13 % accuracy, respectively, when measuring 100 closely packed end-of-life spent fuel pebbles over approximately 12 days using a 4π counting geometry.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

2024 Annual Site Environmental Report for Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration. The National Nuclear Security Administration’s Sandia Field Office administers the Prime Contract and oversees contractor operations at Sandia National Laboratories, California. Activities at this multi-program engineering and science laboratory support the nuclear weapons stockpile program, energy and environmental research, homeland security, micro- and nanotechnologies, and basic science and engineering research. The U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration and its management and operating contractor are committed to fulfilling regulatory obligations, safeguarding the environment, assessing sustainability practices, and ensuring the validity and accuracy of the monitoring data presented in this annual site environmental report (ASER). This report provides a summary of environmental monitoring and compliance activities that occurred at Sandia National Laboratories, California, during calendar year 2024, unless noted otherwise. General site and environmental program information is also included. This report was prepared in accordance with DOE Order 231.1B, Admin Change 1, Environment, Safety and Health Reporting.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Safeguards Technology Program FY2026 Mid-Year Report for Project WBS# 24.1.3.3: Development of Procedures for Th-U Radiochronometry of Uranium Particles by LG-SIMS

Implementing 230 Th- 234 U radiochronometry of environmental uranium particles by large geometry secondary ion mass spectrometry (LG-SIMS) requires assessment, validation, and technical support before safeguards conclusions can be drawn from the information. This project investigates the most challenging aspects of LG-SIMS particle radiochronometry 230 Th- 234 U measurements through a collaboration between LANL and NIST, to provide best practices and procedures for determining high quality ages with optimized uncertainties. This includes exploration of reducing detector backgrounds, investigating the best ways to report uncertainties, and establishing recommended instrument setups.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2025

Advancing ocean monitoring and knowledge for societal benefit: the urgency to expand Argo to OneArgo by 2030

The ocean plays an essential role in regulating Earth’s climate, influencing weather conditions, providing sustenance for large populations, moderating anthropogenic climate change, encompassing massive biodiversity, and sustaining the global economy. Human activities are changing the oceans, stressing ocean health, threatening the critical services the ocean provides to society, with significant consequences for human well-being and safety, and economic prosperity. Effective and sustainable monitoring of the physical, biogeochemical state and ecosystem structure of the ocean, to enable climate adaptation, carbon management and sustainable marine resource management is urgently needed. The Argo program, a cornerstone of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), has revolutionized ocean observation by providing real-time, freely accessible global temperature and salinity data of the upper 2,000m of the ocean (Core Argo) using cost-effective simple robotics. For the past 25 years, Argo data have underpinned many ocean, climate and weather forecasting services, playing a fundamental role in safeguarding goods and lives. Argo data have enabled clearer assessments of ocean warming, sea level change and underlying driving processes, as well as scientific breakthroughs while supporting public awareness and education. Building on Argo’s success, OneArgo aims to greatly expand Argo’s capabilities by 2030, expanding to full-ocean depth, collecting biogeochemical parameters, and observing the rapidly changing polar regions. Providing a synergistic subsurface and global extension to several key space-based Earth Observation missions and GOOS components, OneArgo will enable biogeochemical and ecosystem forecasting and new long-term climate predictions for which the deep ocean is a key component. Driving forward a revolution in our understanding of marine ecosystems and the poorly-measured polar and deep oceans, OneArgo will be instrumental to assess sea level change, ocean carbon fluxes, acidification and deoxygenation. Emerging OneArgo applications include new views of ocean mixing, ocean bathymetry and sediment transport, and ecosystem resilience assessment. Implementing OneArgo requires about $100 million annually, a significant increase compared to present Argo funding. OneArgo is a strategic and cost-effective investment which will provide decision-makers, in both government and industry, with the critical knowledge needed to navigate the present and future environmental challenges, and safeguard both the ocean and human wellbeing for generations to come.

ARGO↗
DOE OSTI2024

Select Proliferation Studies on TRISO-fueled, Heat-Pipe-cooled Microreactors

Nuclear microreactors carry the potential to open up new markets for the nuclear industry, as their expected cost competitiveness in non-traditional market segments (e.g., mines, military bases, extraterrestrial surfaces, and remote areas), and their inherent safety features make them deployable when other power sources are unavailable or difficult to exploit. For countries that have not traditionally participated in nuclear power, microreactors represent a clean energy solution [1]. However, their use, especially in non-weapons states, may entail challenges in terms of maintaining international nuclear safeguards [2]. Furthermore, the deployment locations where microreactors may prove most cost competitive would be difficult to access by state and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspectors [3]. In addition to the isolated nature of potential deployment sites, the low-power characteristic of microreactors suggests that numerous microreactors would need to be deployed to meet energy demands. That, coupled with the unique physics of many current microreactor designs, opens up a new area of research with respect to nonproliferation and safeguards concerns [2]. Whereas traditional facilities are inspected as isolated cases when looking for signs of diversion or misuse; microreactors may need to be assessed in the context of the entire fleet to which they belong. International safeguards necessitate timely detection of any significant quantities (SQs) of material that are being diverted (e.g., 1 SQ of special nuclear material diverted over the course of a 1-year period) [4]. For low-enriched uranium, the IAEA defines 1 SQ as corresponding to 75 kg of 235U. The purpose of the present paper is to explore the detectability threshold for material diversion in microreactors by relying on critical control drum angles, excess reactivity, and the reactor lifetime as the selected operational parameters. For this assessment, a heat-pipe-cooled microreactor was regarded as the base design. While the conclusions reached in this paper are not readily extendable to the design of actual microreactors, the analysis herein enables conclusions to be drawn regarding the level of accuracy needed for reference calculations in order to detect diversion scenarios by utilizing the selected operational parameters (i.e., mainly control drum angles, critical insertion angle, and the reactor lifetime).

22 - GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Evaluation of material accountancy techniques for 233 Pa from thorium nuclear fuels

Thorium is a promising alternative to uranium as nuclear fuel with advantages such as higher abundance, lower production of long-lived transuranic elements, and potentially better proliferation resistance. However, thorium presents a potential pathway for proliferation where produced 233 Pa can be diverted for the clandestine production of safeguarded 233 U. To prevent this, the ability to detect and measure 233 Pa must be assessed. This paper reviews several nuclear material accountancy techniques to determine their suitability for detecting 233 Pa extracted from irradiated thorium fuel. Hybrid K-edge densitometry and passive gamma spectroscopy have been found to be the best options based on technology maturity, cost, accuracy, and acquisition time. Thorium can be used in various reactor designs such as pressurized water reactors (PWRs), Canada deuterium uranium (CANDU) reactors, and molten salt reactors (MSRs). Therefore, thorium-uranium oxide fueling was modeled for three representative reactors (PWR, CANDU, MSR), burning the fuel to 47 GWd/MTHM for PWR, 19 GWd/MTHM for CANDU, and at a steady power of 52.711 MW/MTHM for MSR. Within each model, the protactinium element in the used fuel was extracted and its isotopic content analyzed. Simulated results indicated that 233 Pa can be detected using passive gamma spectroscopy in each fuel type at all decay times (0–300 days) following separation.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2026

DER Cybersecurity Standards: Assessment and Gap Analysis

The purpose of this report is to share the comprehensive gap analysis of existing cybersecurity standards applicable to Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) within the electric power sector. This analysis aims to identify critical deficiencies in current standards, assess their alignment with industry needs, and provide actionable recommendations for enhancing cybersecurity measures. The scope encompasses various DER technologies, including solar, wind, energy storage, and hydrogen fuel cells, and emphasizes the significance of establishing robust cybersecurity frameworks and standards to safeguard these increasingly integrated systems. The report provides valuable insights for stakeholders in the DER ecosystem, including manufacturers, utilities, and regulators. It underscores the importance of continued development and refinement of cybersecurity standards to keep up with the technical advances in DERs and associated cybersecurity challenges. The analysis evaluated IEC, IEEE, ISA, ISO, and UL standards relevant to DER cybersecurity. Standards were assessed on their coverage of key requirements including data availability, integrity, confidentiality, access control, authentication, encryption, and system hardening. For each standard, the analysis assessed its alignment with current industry practices, regulatory compliance, effectiveness in addressing known risks, coverage of emerging risks, and how it promotes interoperability. The evaluation also considered potential integration challenges and barriers to adoption.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Burnup Monitoring for Pebble Bed Reactor Systems

A pebble burnup monitoring system is a required component for domestic reactor safety and safeguards applications associated with pebble bed reactors (PBRs). One of the main requirements of a PBR burnup monitoring system is that it needs to be capable of rapid measurements to assess the burnup of each individual pebble to determine whether to recirculate it in the reactor or discard it as spent fuel. This report considers three different approaches for a burnup monitoring system for pebbles discharged from the reactor core in a pebble bed modular reactor-400: • passive gamma spectrometry measurement, • passive neutron coincidence measurement, and • active neutron counter based on the differential die-away technique. Conceptual designs have been created for each of these detectors, and preliminary analysis has been performed using Monte Carlo N-Particle and Oak Ridge Isotope Generation code simulations. The advantages and practical limitations (e.g., high radiation background) of each system were identified. Simulations suggest that each of the three measurement techniques can be successfully employed to distinguish between pebbles based on their number of passes through the core and to quantify the burnup of pebbles.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

SURVEILLANCE DETECTION FOR TRANSPORTATION OPERATIONS PERSONNEL TO PREVENT HIJACKING, THEFT, SABOTAGE, AND MALICIOUS SECURITY EVENTS DURING TRANSPORTING NUCLEAR MATERIAL

The secure transportation of high-consequence materials, including nuclear and radiological assets, is a critical global priority in the face of escalating terrorism, security threats, and violent protests targeting these operations. Effective surveillance detection—the ability to identify, assess, and respond to potential threats across a continuum of scenarios—is paramount in addressing these challenges. This paper outlines a phased, multi-tiered training program designed to strengthen the surveillance detection capabilities of organizations responsible for nuclear material transport. The proposed training program adopts a progressive approach, gradually increasing in technical complexity to provide participants with comprehensive knowledge and tools for implementing robust security strategies. It targets a wide spectrum of stakeholders, including competent authorities, regulators, inspectors, shippers, carriers, law enforcement, and emergency response personnel, equipping them to plan, evaluate, and safeguard nuclear material transportation effectively. Each phase of the program emphasizes distinct elements of the surveillance detection continuum and transport security, focusing on critical topics such as threat identification, adversary task timelines, protective methodologies, and attack mitigation strategies. The training framework is anchored in technical exchanges and scenario-driven courses that reflect real-world complexities and challenges. By addressing the surveillance detection continuum comprehensively—from early threat assessment to active countermeasures—the program reinforces global efforts to secure nuclear assets. It aligns with international security objectives and fosters a strong security culture within participating organizations, ensuring personnel are prepared to counter potential threats and maintain the safe, secure movement of these materials. Ultimately, this initiative aims to enhance preparedness, security, and response capabilities, supporting the global mission to safeguard high-consequence materials against evolving threats.

Zineddin, Dr. Z. [ORNL] (ORCID:0009000848740725)↗
DOE OSTI2025

Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) Guide for States

The Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) Guide for States provides state energy offices, public utility commissions, and partner organizations with a structured framework for integrating cyber-resilient engineering practices into energy planning, grantmaking, interconnection processes, and workforce development. As grid digitalization and the adoption of distributed energy resources accelerate, states face expanding cyber-physical risks that traditional cybersecurity measures alone cannot fully address. CIE offers a proactive, consequence-focused engineering methodology that emphasizes eliminating or mitigating high-impact failure modes through design, physical controls, and operational safeguards. The guide outlines the 12 core CIE principles, demonstrates their application through state-focused use cases—including grant evaluation rubrics, interconnection reviews, allow-list development, and training programs—and provides practical tools such as scoring frameworks, impact assessment methods, and implementation checklists. It also highlights pathways for state–utility collaboration and opportunities for technical assistance from national laboratories. By adopting CIE, states can enhance grid reliability, reduce lifecycle costs, strengthen supply-chain assurance, and foster a security-aware engineering culture that aligns with broader resilience and modernization goals. November 2025

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) Guide for States

The Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) Guide for States provides state energy offices, public utility commissions, and partner organizations with a structured framework for integrating cyber-resilient engineering practices into energy planning, grantmaking, interconnection processes, and workforce development. As grid digitalization and the adoption of distributed energy resources accelerate, states face expanding cyber-physical risks that traditional cybersecurity measures alone cannot fully address. CIE offers a proactive, consequence-focused engineering methodology that emphasizes eliminating or mitigating high-impact failure modes through design, physical controls, and operational safeguards. The guide outlines the 12 core CIE principles, demonstrates their application through state-focused use cases—including grant evaluation rubrics, interconnection reviews, allow-list development, and training programs—and provides practical tools such as scoring frameworks, impact assessment methods, and implementation checklists. It also highlights pathways for state–utility collaboration and opportunities for technical assistance from national laboratories. By adopting CIE, states can enhance grid reliability, reduce lifecycle costs, strengthen supply-chain assurance, and foster a security-aware engineering culture that aligns with broader resilience and modernization goals. November 2025

29 - ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Methods of Securing Chemical and Pharmaceutical Knowledge and Recommendations for International Institutions to Enhance Research Integrity

Here, this paper examines strategies for securing chemical and pharmaceutical expertise in a globalized research environment, focusing on safeguarding intellectual property and preventing the misuse of sensitive and potentially dual-use information. The product of collective efforts between Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, and New Bulgarian University, highlights the challenges and opportunities posed by cross-border research collaborations, particularly in the context of differing regulatory frameworks and research cultures. It explores current mechanisms to prevent data loss and unauthorized access to sensitive information while assessing the effectiveness of existing security measures, frameworks, and international export control regimes. The approach examines the differing methodologies for promoting transparency, trust-building, and mutual accountability in joint research projects to cultivate secure data-sharing practices and intellectual property. It provides recommendations for international institutions to implement security guidelines in framing research priorities, encourages continual training and education programs, and the integration of processes for monitoring research compliance. This partnership aims to advance scientific innovation while maintaining global stability, ensuring compliance with international norms, and safeguarding valuable intellectual property as measures in chemical and pharmaceutical research security practices continue to expand due to international collaboration and knowledge exchange.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

A non-intrusive framework using acoustic signals and deep learning for boiling diagnostics in visual-limited environments

Accurate monitoring of boiling heat transfer is critical for safeguarding high-power systems operating in environments where conventional optical diagnostics are hindered by radiation fields or restricted visual accessibility. This study presents a non-intrusive framework that integrates hydroacoustic sensing with deep learning to infer near-wall boiling characteristics and enable predictive thermal assessment without visual access. In a prototypical subcooled flow-boiling facility representative of the Isotope Production Facility (IPF) at Los Alamos, hydrophones capture boiling-induced acoustic emissions that are transformed into background-removed Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT) spectrograms. A convolutional neural network (CNN) then regresses heat flux, wall superheat, and key bubble parameters directly from these spectrograms. The CNN achieved predictive accuracy under nominal conditions and demonstrated robustness and generalization under acoustic noise for Signal-to-Noise Ratios (SNRs) down to approximately 0 dB. When integrated into an ANSYS CFX wall-boiling model, the acoustically inferred parameters reproduced boiling curve and critical heat flux (CHF) values consistent with image-based benchmarks. Furthermore, the model retained reliable performance under moderate variations in bulk temperature, flow rate, and hydrophone placement, confirming its generalizability across practical boundary conditions. These results demonstrate the feasibility of hydroacoustic-based deep learning as a viable path toward real-time, radiation-tolerant boiling diagnostics and predictive thermal safety assessment in inaccessible systems such as the IPF.

42 ENGINEERING↗