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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

The Relationship between Precipitation and Precipitable Water in CMIP6 Simulations and Implications for Tropical Climatology and Change

It is well documented that over the tropical oceans, column-integrated precipitable water (pw) and precipitation (P) have a nonlinear relationship. In this study moisture budget analysis is used to examine this P–pw relationship in a normalized precipitable water framework. It is shown that the parameters of the nonlinear relationship depend on the vertical structure of moisture convergence. Specifically, the precipitable water values at which precipitation is balanced independently by evaporation versus by moisture convergence define a critical normalized precipitable water, pw nc . This is a measure of convective inhibition that separates tropical precipitation into two regimes: a local evaporation-controlled regime with widespread drizzle and a precipitable water–controlled regime. Most of the 17 CMIP6 historical simulations examined here have higher pw nc compared to ERA5, and more frequently they operate in the drizzle regime. When compared to observations, they overestimate precipitation over the high-evaporation oceanic regions off the equator, thereby producing a ‘‘double ITCZ’’ feature, while underestimating precipitation over the large tropical landmasses and over the climatologically moist oceanic regions near the equator. The responses to warming under the SSP585 scenario are also examined using the normalized precipitable water framework. It is shown that the critical normalized precipitable water value at which evaporation versus moisture convergence balance precipitation decreases as a result of the competing dynamic and thermodynamic responses to warming, resulting in an increase in drizzle and total precipitation. Statistically significant historical trends corresponding to the thermodynamic and dynamic changes are detected in ERA5 and in lowintensity drizzle precipitation in the PERSIANN precipitation dataset.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

An Algorithm to Retrieve Total Precipitable Water Vapor in the Atmosphere from FengYun 3D Medium Resolution Spectral Imager 2 (FY-3D MERSI-2) Data

The atmosphere has substantial effects on optical remote sensing imagery of the Earth’s surface from space. These effects come through the functioning of atmospheric particles on the radiometric transfer from the Earth’s surface through the atmosphere to the sensor in space. Precipitable water vapor (PWV), CO 2 , ozone, and aerosol in the atmosphere are very important among the particles through their functioning. This study presented an algorithm to retrieve total PWV from the Chinese second-generation polar-orbiting meteorological satellite FengYun 3D Medium Resolution Spectral Imager 2 (FY-3D MERSI-2) data, which have three near-infrared (NIR) water vapor absorbing channels, i.e., channel 16, 17, and 18. The algorithm was improved from the radiance ratio technique initially developed for Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. MODTRAN 5 was used to simulate the process of radiant transfer from the ground surfaces to the sensor at various atmospheric conditions for estimation of the coefficients of ratio technique, which was achieved through statistical regression analysis between the simulated radiance and transmittance values for FY-3D MERSI-2 NIR channels. The algorithm was then constructed as a linear combination of the three-water vapor absorbing channels of FY-3D MERSI-2. Measurements from two ground-based reference datasets were used to validate the algorithm: the sun photometer measurements of Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) and the microwave radiometer measurements of Energy’s Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program (ARMP). The validation results showed that the algorithm performs very well when compared with the ground-based reference datasets. The estimated PWV values come with root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.28 g/cm 2 for the ARMP and 0.26 g/cm 2 for the AERONET datasets, with bias of 0.072 g/cm 2 and 0.096 g/cm 2 for the two reference datasets, respectively. The accuracy of the proposed algorithm revealed a better consistency with ground-based reference datasets. Thus, the proposed algorithm could be used as an alternative to retrieve PWV from FY-3D MERSI-2 data for various remote sensing applications such as agricultural monitoring, climate change, hydrologic cycle, and so on at various regional and global scales.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

GPS Measurements of Precipitable Water Vapor Can Improve Survey Calibration: A Demonstration from KPNO and the Mayall z -band Legacy Survey

Dual-band Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) measurements of precipitable water vapor (PWV) at the Kitt Peak National Observatory predict the overall per-image sensitivity of the Mayall z-band Legacy Survey (MzLS). The per-image variation in the brightness of individual stars is strongly correlated with the measured PWV and the color of the star. Synthetic stellar spectra through TAPAS transmission models successfully predict the observed PWV-induced photometric variation. We find that PWV absorption can be well approximated by a linear relationship with (airmass × PWV) 0.6 and present an update on the traditional treatment in the literature. The MzLS zero-point sensitivity in electrons s –1 varies with a normalized-mean absolute deviation of 61 mmag. PWV variation accounts 23 mmag of this zero-point variation. The MzLS per-image absolute sensitivity decreases by 40 mmag per effective mm of PWV. The overall gray offset portion of this variation is corrected by the calibration to a reference catalog. But the relative calibration error between blue (r – z < 0.5 mag) versus red (1.2 mag < r – z) stars increases by 0.3–2 mmag per effective mm of PWV. We argue that GPS systems provide more precise PWV measurements than using differential measurements of stars of different colors and recommend that observatories install dual-band GPS as a low-maintenance, low-cost, auxiliary calibration system. We extend our results of the need for well-calibrated PWV measurements by presenting the calculations of the PWV photometric impact on three science cases of interest: stellar photometry, supernova cosmology, and quasar identification and variability.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Challenges in correlating oxygen stable isotope ratios of hydrates on uranium ore concentrates to process waters

Exchange of oxygen stable isotopes (δ 18 O values) between precipitation waters and uranium oxides is governed by thermodynamics or kinetics. It has been assumed that meteoric waters can be related to precipitation waters in uranium ore concentrates and their calcination and reduced uranium oxide products. With this assumption, the δ 18 O values of uranium materials could provide forensic signatures that identify the production history and geolocation of nuclear materials. To further exploit the potential of δ 18 O values in nuclear material analysis, this study examines the oxygen stable isotope exchange in two UOCs, magnesium diuranate (MDU) and sodium diuranate (SDU). MDU and SDU were synthesized from solutions of uranyl nitrate hexahydrate using precipitation waters with unique oxygen isotope compositions. The structures of the MDU and SDU were analyzed using powder X-ray diffraction (p-XRD) and thermal mass loss curves, while the δ 18 O values of waters generated during thermal decomposition were analyzed using a thermogravimetric analyzer coupled to an isotope ratio infrared spectrometer (TGA-IRIS). By p-XRD, the MDU was uniform and amorphous across all syntheses with residual crystalline material incorporated as a minor component. Combined with the TGA results, all of the MDU is likely amorphous MgU 2 O 7 ·3H 2 O with MgO impurities present throughout. In contrast, the SDU synthesis resulted in multiple phases with many samples exhibiting crystalline phases including a combination of Na(UO 2 ) 4 O 2 (OH) 5 ·5H 2 O and Na 2 (UO2) 6 O 4 (OH) 6 ·8H 2 O with a Na 2 U 2 O 7 minor phase. A small fraction of the SDU samples were amorphous with no crystalline XRD peaks observed. Mass loss curves of the SDU samples revealed that the amorphous samples contained inclusions of similar crystalline phases compared to the crystalline materials. The uniformity of the MDU samples enabled highly reproducible measurements of δ 18 O values of the water vapor yielded for two dehydration events at 170 °C and 500 °C. In contrast, the multiphase composition of the SDU samples resulted in poor reproducibility in δ 18 O values. In conclusion, neither system revealed any correlation between the δ 18 O values of precipitation water, and the waters released during dehydration of the UOCs.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗
DOE OSTI2025

The Impacts of Rotational Mixing on the Precipitation Simulated by a Convection Permitting Model

With increased availability of computational resources, regional and global scale convection-permitting model (CPM, Δx ~ 1–10 km) simulations are becoming more common. CPMs have improved accuracy in their representation of deep convection and mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) compared to coarser resolution models. However, CPMs still exhibit convective cloud and precipitation biases relative to observations, notably a lesser frequency of light precipitation rates and greater frequency of heavy precipitation rates. In this work we hypothesize that these CPM biases are related to under-resolved mixing between convective updrafts and their surrounding environment. To test this hypothesis, we introduce a parameterization to the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) that adds a small angular rotation of the grid-scale flow about the axis perpendicular to the plane of convective drafts. This rotated flow is then allowed to alter advection of moisture and hydrometeors. The effects of such mixing on precipitation characteristics are evaluated in month-long 4-km grid spacing simulations over the Amazon. The enhanced mixing transports moisture and condensate from convective cores to other areas including downdrafts. This increases the frequency of low-precipitable water and light precipitation. It also decreases the frequency of intense precipitation from isolated deep convection and MCSs, increases cloud top temperatures, reduces radar echo-top heights, and increases overall precipitation by altering the relationship of precipitation with precipitable water, in better agreement with observations. The results suggest when optimized using multiple observations, such an approach may provide a path toward more accurate representation of convection and precipitation statistics in convection-permitting simulations.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Increased Variability of Biomass Burning Emissions in CMIP6 Amplifies Hydrologic Cycle in the CESM2 Large Ensemble

Abstract Historical simulations performed for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 used biomass burning emissions between 1997 and 2014 containing higher spatial and temporal variability compared to emission inventories specified for earlier years, and compared to emissions used in previous (e.g., CMIP5) simulation intercomparisons. Using the Community Earth System Model version 2 Large Ensemble, we show this increased biomass burning emissions variability leads to amplification of the hydrologic cycle poleward of 40°N. Notably, the high variability of biomass burning emissions leads to increased latent heat fluxes, column‐integrated precipitable water, and precipitation. Greater ocean heat uptake, weaker meridional energy transport from the tropics, greater atmospheric shortwave and longwave absorption, and lower relative humidity act to moderate this hydrologic cycle amplification. Our results suggest it is not only the secular changes (on multidecadal timescales) in biomass burning emissions that impact the hydrologic cycle, but also the shorter timescale variability in emissions.

Heyblom, Kyle B.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Microwave Radiometer – 3-Channel (MWR3C) Instrument Handbook

The microwave radiometer 3-channel (MWR3C) provides time-series measurements of brightness temperatures from three channels centered at 23.834, 30, and 89 GHz. These three channels are sensitive to the presence of liquid water and precipitable water vapor.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Microwave Radiometer — 3-Channel (MWR3C) Instrument Handbook

The microwave radiometer – 3-channel (MWR3C, RPG-LWP-U90) deployed by the U.S. Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) user facility provides time-series measurements of brightness temperatures from three channels centered at 23.834, 30, and 89 GHz. These three channels are sensitive to the presence of liquid water and precipitable water vapor.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2026

California Trees Seasonally Use Augmented Water Sources: Water Isotope Tracking in a Groundwater‐Dependent Ecosystem

Sustainable groundwater management must account for the needs of groundwater dependent ecosystems. To understand the relationship of ecosystems and seasonal water use, we studied the stable isotope composition (δ 18 O and δ 2 H) of water in streamside trees in a semi-arid streamside environment (Livermore, California, USA). We sampled seven trees at two sites every other month from April 2024 through April 2025 for tree xylem stable water isotope signatures. These data were compared to potential source waters: precipitation, imported surface water, soil water and regional groundwaters. Large daily precipitation events were found to be isotopically similar to regional groundwater and were thus treated as one water source. A Bayesian mixing model using stable water isotopes was used to determine the ratios of these three potential source waters (small daily precipitation events, groundwater/large daily precipitation events and imported water) present in tree xylem water. On average, tree water sources include 32% imported water (SD = 9%), 35% small daily precipitation events (SD = 10%) and 33% groundwater (SD = 3%), with significant seasonal variation (t summer-winter = 30.8, p < 0.01), particularly drawing more imported water (more than 55%) in the summer. While small daily precipitation events contribute only 10% of the total precipitation in our dataset, it represents a third of water used by trees. In addition, while these ecosystems are designated as groundwater dependent ecosystems, the trees use approximately one third imported water and even more during dry summer months. This approach provides water managers with a practical tool for quantifying ecosystem water needs, supporting data-driven decisions and regulatory compliance. While California's Sustainable Groundwater Management Act emphasizes supporting groundwater dependent ecosystems, it allows flexibility in demonstrating benefits. In conclusion, our methodology provides a way to document that management actions (such as managed aquifer recharge with imported water) deliver measurable co-benefits to GDEs.

Geosciences↗
DOE OSTI2021

The Amazon Water Cycle: Perspectives from Water Budget Closure and Ocean Salinity

Global and regional water cycle includes precipitation, water vapor divergence, and change of column water vapor in the atmosphere, and land surface evapotranspiration, terrestrial water storage change, and river discharge, which is linked to ocean salinity near the river mouth. The water cycle is a crucial component of the Earth system, and numerous studies have addressed its individual components (e.g., precipitation). Here we assess, for the first time, if remote sensing and reanalysis datasets can accurately and self-consistently portray the Amazon water cycle. This is further assisted with satellite ocean salinity measurements near the mouth of the Amazon River. The widely used practice of taking the mean of an ensemble of datasets to represent water cycle components (e.g., precipitation) can produce large biases in water cycle closure. Additionally, closure is achieved with only a small subset of data combinations (e.g., ERA5 precipitation and evapotranspiration plus GRACE satellite terrestrial water storage), which rules out the lower precipitation and higher evapotranspiration estimates, providing valuable constraints on assessments of precipitation, evapotranspiration, and their ratio. The common approach of using the Óbidos stream gauge (located hundreds of kilometers from the river mouth) multiplied by a constant (1.25) to represent the entire Amazon discharge is found to misrepresent the seasonal cycle, and this can affect the apparent influence of Amazon discharge on tropical Atlantic salinity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Post-fire time series of sensor and geochemistry sample data from surface water, groundwater, precipitation, soil, and vegetation across Oak Creek watershed, Washington

This dataset supports a broader study examining wildfire impacts on hydrologic connectivity across 5 sites within the Oak Creek watershed and the resulting biogeochemical impacts. Stream sites were selected using the Advanced Terrestrial Simulator (ATS) hydrologic model to identify locations with varying groundwater contributions and hydrologic responses across different burn severity scenarios. The Retreat Fire burned from July 23 to August 2 in 2024, affecting the five study sites at varying burn severities. Each site is equipped with YSI EXO2 sondes logging sub-hourly throughout the year, and grab samples are collected approximately every six weeks. YSI sondes are used to measure temporally resolved proxies for groundwater inputs (specific conductivity) and organic matter (fluorescent dissolved organic matter; fDOM) along with basic water quality and depth. Grab samples of surface water, groundwater, and precipitation are analyzed for water stable isotopes and conductivity to understand endmembers for hydrologic mixing Grab samples of surface water, groundwater, soil water, and litter/vegetation/soil leachates are analyzed for organic matter composition measured by Fourier-Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry (FTICR-MS) to understand organic matter dynamics. Game camera photos are provided in a separate data package available at https://data.ess-dive.lbl.gov/datasets/doi:10.15485/3018598. Future versions of this dataset will include time series data from YSI EXO2 sondes (fDOM, dissolved oxygen, temperature, depth, specific conductance, turbidity, pH), BaroTROLL sensors (air temperature and barometric pressure), rain gauges (precipitation), and data from the soil and vegetation samples. Because this study is ongoing, this data package will be updated regularly to include newly collected data and the additional data types. For details on how to navigate data packages generated by this project, see https://data.ess-dive.lbl.gov/portals/PNNLRiverCorridorSFA/About. In addition to a readme, this data package also includes a file-level metadata (FLMD) file that describes each file and a data dictionary (DD) that describes all column/row headers and variable definitions. This dataset is comprised of (1) a folder of field photos; (2) a folder of surface water sample data; (3) a folder of raw Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS) data; (4) a data checks report; (5) file-level metadata; (6) data dictionary; (7) field metadata; (8) readme; (9) international generic sample number (IGSN) mapping file; and (10) field protocols. The sample data subfolder contains (1) dissolved organic carbon (DOC, measured as non-purgeable organic carbon, NPOC) data and averages; (2) total dissolved nitrogen data and averages; (3) stable water isotopes and averages; (4) methods codes; (5) FTICR-MS methods; and (15) a subfolder of 9.4 Tesla (9.4T) FTICR-MS data. This folder contains the processed data and three subfolders, one containing the .xml files, one containing the water CoreMS output files, and the other containing instructions and scripts for processing the files in CoreMS (https://github.com/EMSL-Computing/CoreMS). All files are .csv, .pdf, .R, .xml, .d, .html, .Rmd, .py, .cal, .json, .jpg, .jpeg, .png, .mov, or .mp4.

Biogeochemistry↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mesoscale Convective Systems Tracking Method Intercomparison (MCSMIP): Application to DYAMOND Global km‐Scale Simulations

Abstract Global kilometer‐scale models represent the future of Earth system modeling, enabling explicit simulation of organized convective storms and their associated extreme weather. Here, we comprehensively evaluate tropical mesoscale convective system (MCS) characteristics in the DYAMOND (DYnamics of the atmospheric general circulation modeled on non‐hydrostatic domains) simulations for both summer and winter phases. Using 10 different feature trackers applied to simulations and satellite observations, we assess MCS frequency, precipitation, and other key characteristics. Substantial differences (a factor of 2–3) arise among trackers in observed MCS frequency and their precipitation contribution, but model‐observation differences in MCS statistics are more consistent across trackers. DYAMOND models are generally skillful in simulating tropical mean MCS frequency, with multi‐model mean biases ranging from −2%–8% over land and −8%–8% over ocean (summer vs. winter). However, most DYAMOND models underestimate MCS precipitation amount (23%) and their contribution to total precipitation (17%). Biases in precipitation contributions are generally smaller over land (13%) than over ocean (21%), with moderate inter‐model variability. While models better simulate MCS diurnal cycles and cloud shield characteristics, they overestimate MCS precipitation intensity and underestimate stratiform rain contributions (up to a factor of 2), particularly over land, albeit observational uncertainties exist. Additionally, models exhibit a wide range of precipitable water in the tropics compared to reanalysis and satellite observations, with many models showing exaggerated sensitivity of MCS precipitation intensity to precipitable water. The MCS metrics developed here provide process‐oriented diagnostics to guide future model development.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Predicting Characteristics of the Water Cycle From Scaling Relationships

Over multi-decadal time scales, assuming that changes in subsurface water storage are negligible, the continental precipitative water flux, P, can be divided into two principal components, Q (run-off, including soil infiltration and groundwater recharge) and ET (evapotranspiration). Taking into account a broadly applied Budyko's phenomenology to describe the relationship of ET/P as a function of PET/P, where PET is the potential evapotranspiration, we propose a theoretical framework for predicting characteristics of the water cycle from scaling relationships. In this framework, the ecosystem net primary productivity is expressed in terms of soil formation and vegetation growth, which is mathematically optimized with respect to the water partitioning, generating directly the value ET/P. Here, the mathematical optimization is based on the general ecological principle that dominant ecosystems tend to be those that, for any given conditions, maximize conversion of atmospheric carbon to biomass. It is shown that application of the results of mathematical optimization to water-limited ecosystems is possible by applying the optimization only to a vegetation covered portion of the surface. For energy-limited ecosystems, the optimization can be applied only to a portion of the precipitation equal to PET, assuming that the remaining P simply runs off. We use theoretical and actual values of plant root fractal dimensionalities, d f , to predict ranges of ET/P as a function of PET/P for 0 ≤ PET/P ≤ 1 and compare with annual and multi-decadal means of ET/P. By comparing the developed approach with a large amount of data collected from the literature, we demonstrate its successful applications to both water- and energy-limited systems.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

What Are the Similarities and Differences in Marine Boundary Layer Cloud and Drizzle Microphysical Properties During the ACE–ENA and MARCUS Field Campaigns?

This study compares macrophysical and microphysical properties of single-layered, liquid-dominant MBL clouds from the Measurements of Aerosols, Radiation, and Clouds over the Southern Ocean (MARCUS) (above 60°S) and the ARM East North Atlantic (ENA) site during the Aerosol and Cloud Experiments in Eastern North Atlantic (ACE-ENA) field campaign. A total of 1,136 (16.5% of clouds) and 6,034 5-min cloud samples are selected from MARCUS and ARM ENA in this study. MARCUS clouds have higher cloud-top heights, thicker cloud layers, larger liquid water path, and colder cloud temperatures than ENA. Thinner, warmer MBL clouds at ENA can contain higher layer-mean liquid water content due to higher cloud and ocean surface temperatures along with greater precipitable water vapor (PWV). MARCUS has a higher drizzle frequency rate (71.8%) than ENA (45.1%). Retrieved cloud and drizzle microphysical properties from each field campaign show key differences. MARCUS clouds feature smaller cloud droplets, whereas ENA clouds have larger cloud droplets, especially at the upper region of the cloud. From cloud top to cloud base, drizzle drop sizes increase while number concentrations decrease. Drizzle drop radius and number concentration decrease from cloud base to drizzle base due to net evaporation, and MARCUS' lower specific humidity leads to a higher drizzle base than ENA. In conclusion, the broader surface pressure and lower tropospheric stability (LTS) distributions during MARCUS have demonstrated that there are different synoptic patterns for selected cases during MARCUS with less PWV, while ENA is dominated by high pressure systems with nearly doubled PWV.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Structure of an Atmospheric River over Australia and the Southern Ocean. Part I: Tropical and Midlatitude Water Vapor Fluxes

An atmospheric river (AR) impacting Australia-Tasmania and the Southern Ocean during the Austral summer on 28-29 January 2018 during the SOCRATES campaign is analyzed using both a modeling and observational approach. Gulfstream-V dropsonde measurements and GPM radar analyses were used in conjunction with Weather Research and Forecasting model simulations with water vapor tracers to investigate the relative contributions of tropical and mid-latitude moisture sources to the AR. Moisture associated with a monsoonal tropical depression became entrained into a mid-latitude frontal system that extended to 60°S over the Southern Ocean reaching the associated low pressure system 850 km off the east coast of Antarctica – effectively connecting the tropics and the polar region. Tropical moisture contributed to about 50% of the precipitable water within the AR. The tropical contribution to precipitation decreased with latitude, from > 70% over the Australian continent, to ~50% off the Australian coast, to less than 10% poleward of 60°S. Precipitation in the AR conformed to a seeder-feeder model, the seeder precipitation forming primarily from tropical sourced moisture above the altitude of the 0°C isotherm, and the feeder precipitation sourced from mid-latitude sourced moisture below the altitude of the 0°C isotherm. The integrated vapor transport (IVT) through the core of the AR reached above 500 kg m-1s-1 during 1200 UTC 28 January to 0600 UTC 29 January 29, 1.29 times the average amount of water carried by the world’s largest river, the Amazon. The high IVT strength might be attributed to the higher water vapor content associated with the warmer temperatures in Austral summer.

Rauber, Robert M.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Climate-Relevant Gas Absorption Properties from AWARE and Other ARM Spectral Measurements (Final Report)

The objective of this project has been to use measurements from the Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI) deployed at ARM sites to improve our knowledge of uncertain infrared spectroscopic parameters of importance to climate, remote sensing, and data assimilation. A primary focus has been the water vapor continuum in the infrared atmospheric window. Radiation codes used to predict climate and weather base their representation of the water vapor continuum in this window on the MT_CKD model, but in this spectral region the MT_CKD water vapor continuum absorption coefficients were derived almost two decades ago by an analysis of AERI measurements for conditions with a limited range of precipitable water vapor (PWV) and temperature values, leading to uncertainty in the derived coefficients. This project has included a new, comprehensive analysis of all aspects of the water vapor continuum in the atmospheric window -- the self continuum, the foreign continuum, and the self continuum temperature dependence, all resolved spectrally. Having a wide range of PWV amounts and temperatures from deployments of the ARM Mobile Facility for GoAmazon as well as the more than a decade of AERI measurements at SGP has provided an appropriate foundation for such a comprehensive analysis.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗