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Optical power beaming has the potential to fundamentally change how remote devices receive power, leading to technological innovation across many sectors. NREL is interested in teaming with partners to engineer field-ready (and space-ready) solutions for long-range power beaming and adapt new ideas to important applications.
Abstract Organic–inorganic metal‐halide perovskites have received great attention for photovoltaic (PV) applications owing to their superior optoelectronic properties and the unprecedented performance development. For single‐junction PV devices, although lead (Pb)‐based perovskite solar cells have achieved 26.1% efficiency, the mixed tin‐lead (Sn‐Pb) perovskites offer more ideal bandgap tuning capability to enable an even higher performance. The Sn‐Pb perovskite (with a bandgap tuned to ≈1.2 eV) is also attractive as the bottom subcell for a tandem configuration to further surpass the Shockley–Queisser radiative limit for the single‐junction devices. The performance of the all‐perovskite tandem solar cells has gained rapid development and achieved a certified efficiency up to 29.1%. In this article, the properties and recent development of state‐of‐the‐art mixed Sn‐Pb perovskites and their application in single‐junction and all‐perovskite tandem solar cells are reviewed. Recent advances in various approaches covering additives, solvents, interfaces, and perovskite growth are highlighted. The authors also provide the perspective and outlook on the challenges and strategies for further development of mixed Sn‐Pb perovskites in both efficiency and stability for PV applications.
III-V PV receivers provide high performance over wide range of application conditions. Operating conditions including irradiance and cell temperature must be accounted for. Very high efficiencies demonstrated for small GaAs devices. Potential for significant future advances in performance, especially for other wavelengths and for cost.
Solar cells have been used to convert sunlight to electrical energy for many years and also offer great potential for non-solar energy conversion applications. Their greatly improved performance under monochromatic light compared to sunlight, makes them suitable as photovoltaic (PV) receivers in laser power beaming applications. Laser beamed power to a PV array receiver could provide power to satellites, an orbital transfer vehicle, or a lunar base. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium phosphide (InP) solar cells have calculated efficiencies of more than 50 percent under continuous illumination at the optimum wavelength. Currently high power free-electron lasers are being developed which operate in pulsed conditions. Understanding cell behavior under a laser pulse is important in the selection of the solar cell material and the laser. An experiment by NAsA lewis and JPL at the AVLIS laser facility in Livermore, CA presented experimental data on cell performance under pulsed laser illumination. Reference 5 contains an overview of technical issues concerning the use of solar cells for laser power conversion, written before the experiments were performed. As the experimental results showed, the actual effects of pulsed operation are more complicated. Reference 6 discusses simulations of the output of GaAs concentrator solar cells under pulsed laser illumination. The present paper continues this work, and compares the output of Si and GaAs solar cells.
Space concentrator modules with point-and line-focus Fresnel lenses and with reflective parabolic troughs have been developed recently at Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute. PV receivers for these modules are based: on the single junction LPE and MOCVD AlGaAs/GaAs solar cells characterized by AM0 efficiencies of 23.5 - 24% at 20 - 50 suns and 24 - 24.75 at 50 - 200 suns; on the mechanically stacked tandem AlGaAs/GaAs-GaSb cells with efficiency of 27 - 28 at 20 - 100 suns. MOCVD AlGaAs/GaAs cells with internal Bragg reflector have shown a higher radiation resistance as compared to a traditional structure. Monolithic two-terminal tandems AlGaAs (top)-GaAs (bottom) for space application and GaSb (top) - InGaAsSb (bottom) for TRV application are under development as well.
This report analyzes U.S. PV manufacturing announcements from 2017 through July-2019 and explores the potential impact of tariffs on the competitiveness of U.S. PV module manufacturing. First, the fraction of announcements that resulted in established facilities in the time frame specified is analyzed, as well as firm nationality and the existence of any other U.S. facilities for the firm. The prevalence of different PV product types among the announcements was also analyzed, as well as the type of facilities selected for development (greenfield, existing PV factories, or repurposed buildings). The cost to build these facilities was also analyzed in the context of their capacity, the value of incentives received by state and local governments, and the number of jobs created. Case studies of Auxin Solar, First Solar, Hanwha Q Cells, JinkoSolar, LG, Silfab, Solaria, and SunPower were conducted and highlight five factors influencing firms’ decisions to expand their U.S. PV production capacity. These included: 1) proximity to demand, including supply contracts and demand for domestic content 2) tariffs and other incentives. The Section 201 tariffs on PV module imports were often described helpful but tariffs on cell imports (Section 201) or materials (Section 301, Section 232) were often described as counterproductive since U.S. supply chains do not exist for many necessary goods. The corporate tax decrease and local incentives were often mentioned as helpful. 3) the ability to move quickly in order to maximize the benefit of the Section 201 tariffs. This affected decisions to select localities with faster permitting or moving into existing buildings. 4) competition with scale, where competing with Asian PV imports or avoiding imports of material from China was challenging due to the larger scale of Asian manufacturers. Additionally, smaller firms expressed concerns that larger firms may not need their U.S. facilities to profitable. 5) access to capital, which was a particular challenge for smaller firms. Several U.S. tariffs affect the economics of PV cells, modules, and balance-of-module (BOM) materials, some of which are applicable to a long list of countries and others applicable only to China or Taiwan. We analyze how the tariffs interact to affect the prices of c-Si modules sourced under various assumptions about domestic and imported components and assembly. We estimate module prices under a range of baseline scenarios featuring U.S.-assembled modules with Southeast Asian cells (not from China or Taiwan). When all BOM components are sourced from the United States, baseline module prices are $0.37/W (below the 2.5-GW Section 201 cell cap) to $0.42/W (above the 2.5-GW cell cap). If all BOM components are sourced from China, the module price in this baseline U.S.-assembly scenario can reach up to $0.60/W. Imported module prices are lower than or within the range of the U.S.-assembled baseline prices under some conditions. Importing bifacial modules from Southeast Asia is the lowest-priced alternative, at $0.35/W, because bifacial modules are excluded from the Section 201 tariffs. Importing Southeast Asia modules that contain U.S. cells results in a price of $0.38/W, also owing to a Section 201 exclusion. Importing Southeast Asian modules that have Southeast Asian cells yields a price of $0.44/W, and importing Chinese modules that have U.S. cells yields a price of $0.58/W. These results suggest that U.S. tariff policy in 2019 may encourage U.S. assembly of mono-facial c-Si modules if the 2.5-GW cell import cap is not reached and Chinese BOM imports are negligible. However, some imported module options may offer the lowest prices if the 2.5-GW cell import cap is reached and/or U.S. module manufacturers must rely on significant Chinese BOM content. The analysis shows the 2.5-GW cell cap may be exceeded in 2019 and following years. It is also likely that U.S. module manufacturers will need to use at least some Chinese BOM content, since U.S. module manufacturers have stated that U.S. supply chains do not exist (or do not exist at a sufficient scale) for most BOM components, which makes them at least partially reliant on Chinese BOM and thus subject to Section 301 tariffs.
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have demonstrated rapid progress in their power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) - from 3.8% in 2009 to 25.7% in 2022 - and they have received considerable attention as a promising future photovoltaic (PV) technology. However, the operational stability of PSCs is still inadequate to satisfy the standards for commercial applications. Interface engineering has become one of the most important strategies to push PSCs' efficiency and stability for practical use. Among the various interface engineering approaches, organic interface modifiers (OIMs) have been frequently used by the PSC field to address the issues limiting PSC stability at high efficiency levels. In this perspective, the chemical structures of state-of-the-art OIMs are discussed, and their characteristics are reviewed, as well as the impact on device performance associated with key device interfaces (e.g., metal oxide/perovskite and organic transport layer/perovskite interfaces) from a chemical and materials engineering point of view is discussed. Finally, design considerations and the authors' perspective are discussed, on the basis of representative literature examples, for building new, customized organic OIMs to further improve PSC efficiency and stability toward commercialization.
When humans ascend to high altitude (ALT) their plasma volume (PV) and total blood volume (BV) decrease during the first few days. With continued residence over several weeks, the hypoxia-induced stimulation of erythropoietin increases red cell production which tends to restore BV. Because hypoxia also activates the beta-adrenergic system, which stimulates red blood cell production, we investigated the effect of adrenergic beta-receptor inhibition with propranolol on fluid volumes and the polycythemic response in 11 healthy unacclimatized men (21-33 years old exposed to an ALT of 4300 m (barometric pressure 460 Torr) for 3 weeks on Pikes Peak, Colorado. PV was determined by the Evans blue dye method (PV(sub EB)), BV by the carbon monoxide method (BV(sub CO)), red cell volume (RCV)was calculated from hematocrit (Hct) and BV(sub CO), and serum erythropoietin concentration ([EPO]) and reticulocyte count, were also determined. All determinations were made at sea level and after 9-11 (ALT-10) and 9-20 (ALT-20) days at ALT. At sea level and ALT, six men received propranolol (pro, 240 mg/day), and five received a placebo (pla). Effective beta-blockade did not modify the mean (SE) maximal values of [EPO] [pla: 24.9 (3.5) vs pro: 24.5 (1.5) mU/ml] or reticulocyte count [pla: 2.7 (0.7) vs pro: 2.2 (0.5)%]; nor changes in PV(sub EB)[pla: -15.8 (3.8) vs pro: -19.9 (2.8)%], RCV(sub CO) [pla: +7.0 (6.7) vs pro: +10.1 (6.1)%], or BV(sub CO) [pla: -7.3 (2.3) vs pro: -7.1 (3.9)%]. In the absence of weight loss, a redistribution of body water with no net loss is implied. Hence, activation of the beta-adrenergic system did not appear to affect the hypovolemic or polycythemic responses that occurred during 3 weeks at 4300 m ALT in these subjects.
Successfully launched on August 3, 1994, the Photovoltaic Array Space Power Plus Diagnostics (PASP Plus) flight experiment is a joint Air Force Phillips Laboratory/NASA Lewis Research Center program designed to test a variety of new and existing photovoltaic (PV) cell and array technologies within the space environment. The experiment consists of 12 different experimental photovoltaic modules, along with numerous diagnostic instruments that measure the space environment and interactions between the experimental modules and that environment. Power Technology Division personnel at Lewis, who had the primary responsibility for integrating the individual photovoltaic module experiments, continue to analyze and interpret the current-voltage characteristics and environmental effects data received back from the spacecraft. The major goals of the experiment included determining the long-term performance of the photovoltaic modules within a high-radiation environment (PASP Plus was launched into an elliptical, high-radiation orbit) and measuring the interactions between the experimental modules and the space plasma when the modules were biased at high positive and negative voltages. Understanding array interactions within the space plasma is critical to spacecraft power system operations and important to providing higher bus voltage designs in the future.
Harvesting solar energy has never been more important than today as the world is combating the implications of global climate change. Grid decarbonization is a central component of efforts to keep the global temperature increase below 2 °C following the 2015 Paris Agreement. The Sun is the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source with the Earth’s surface receiving enough energy in an hour to meet the world’s annual energy demands. Therefore, we need to take advantage of the essentially limitless clean solar energy for powering our society; this can be achieved using photovoltaics (PV), direct conversion of sunlight into electricity using semiconductor materials. To gain full advantage of this technology, however, the cost of PV must be competitive with the more traditional carbon-based sources (coal, oil, and natural gas). Most recent developments on this front, including the current state-of-the-art solar cell technologies and ongoing work on a new generation of light absorbing chalcogenide materials, are discussed by Lydia Wong and colleagues in a comprehensive new review article (10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00301). The Review covers a broad class of materials and provides a comparison between different materials on the basis of diode parameters and DFT calculations. Furthermore, this Highlight will focus specifically on copper zinc tin sulfide (CZTS).
Potential induced degradation (PID) is a reliability issue affecting photovoltaic (PV) modules, mainly when PV strings operate under high voltages in hot/humid conditions. Polarization-type PID (PID-p) has been known to decrease module performance quickly. PID-p can be reduced or recovered under the light in some cases, but this effect, as expected, would be less pronounced on the rear side of bifacial PV modules receiving lower irradiance. As bifacial PV modules are projected to dominate the PV market within the next 10 years, it is crucial to understand the PID-p issue in bifacial modules better. In this study, we performed indoor PID testing to induce PID-p on 14 commercial bifacial p-PERC modules with three different module constructions from three manufacturers. Here, four rounds (+ve and –ve polarities for front and rear sides) of PID testing are done at 25°C, 54% relative humidity (RH) for 168 h using the aluminum foil method. Each module side (front cell side and back cell side) is tested individually under both negative and positive voltage bias. The results show that the highest degradation of 32% in maximum power (Pmax) at standard test conditions (1000 W/m 2 ) and 51% at low irradiance (200 W/m 2 ) has been observed in some cases. Recovery under sunlight is also done, and outcomes show a near-complete recovery in Pmax. This study presents an extensive experimental methodology and a detailed analysis to systematically and simultaneously/sequentially evaluate multiple construction types of bifacial modules to the PID-p susceptibility and recovery.
Polycrystalline thin-film photovoltaics (PV), such as CIS and CdTe, have received considerable attention recently with respect to space power applications. Their combination of stability, efficiency, and economy from large-scale monolithic-integration of modules can have significant impact on cost and weight of PV arrays for spacecraft and planetary experiments. An added advantage, due to their minimal thickness (approximately 6 microns sans substrate), is the ability to manufacture lightweight, flexible devices (approximately 2000 W/kg) using large-volume manufacturing techniques. The photovoltaic effort at Martin Marietta and ISET is discussed, including large-area, large-volume thin-film deposition techniques such as electrodeposition and rotating cylindrical magnetron sputtering. Progress in the development of flexible polycrystalline thin-film PV is presented, including evaluation of flexible CIS cells. In addition, progress on flexible CdTe cells is presented. Finally, examples of lightweight, flexible arrays and their potential cost and weight impact is discussed.
Emerging photovoltaic (PV) technologies (e.g., organic, perovskite, and solution processed quantum dot) have attracted remarkable attention with the rapid growth of their efficiencies, and their transition toward commercialization. Accurate and reliable efficiency measurements of these PV technologies are crucial, yet much more complicated than for conventional PV technologies due to the former's pronounced dynamic responses to changes in measurement conditions (e.g., current–voltage (I–V) scan rate and preconditioning) and their susceptibility to degradation. Adjustments to the measurement procedures are therefore necessary so that a reproducible “steady state” is reached during measurement. Furthermore, given the small size of many emerging cells, inappropriate device area definition and solar simulator setup can lead to measurement errors. Here, comprehensive efficiency calibration guidance is offered for emerging solar cells, including area measurement; spectral irradiance translation to standard test conditions; and steady-state electrical performance. The necessity of reporting steady-state efficiency is justified with a statistical performance comparison between conventional and steady-state I–V scans over hundreds of cells the group has received globally for efficiency certifications. The procedures described here do not require specialized measurement instrumentation; what matters most are changes to the measurement protocols. These described changes aim to enable better comparisons between reported efficiencies.
The light-emitting diodes (LEDs) used in indoor testing of perovskite solar cells do not expose them to the levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that they would receive in actual outdoor use. We report degradation mechanisms of p-i-n-structured perovskite solar cells under unfiltered sunlight and with LEDs. Weak chemical bonding between perovskites and polymer hole-transporting materials (HTMs) and transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) dominate the accelerated A-site cation migration, rather than direct degradation of HTMs. An aromatic phosphonic acid, [2-(9-ethyl-9H-carbazol-3-yl)ethyl]phosphonic acid (EtCz3EPA), enhanced bonding at the perovskite/HTM/TCO region with a phosphonic acid group bonded to TCOs and a nitrogen group interacting with lead in perovskites. A hybrid HTM of EtCz3EPA with strong hole-extraction polymers retained high efficiency and improved the UV stability of perovskite devices, and a champion perovskite minimodule-independently measured by the Perovskite PV Accelerator for Commercializing Technologies (PACT) center-retained operational efficiency of >16% after 29 weeks of outdoor testing.
The Cryogenic Flux Capacitor (CFC) is a cold, dense energy storage core that is being studied in the cryo-compressed, about 300 bar and 80K, region of gaseous hydrogen (GH2) storage and liquid hydrogen (LH2) region near the normal boiling point. The hydrogens storage is improved by physically bonding the molecules within the nanoscale pores of the aerogel composite blanket material. The process of bonding or debonding is governed by principles of physical adsorption (physisorption) and thermodynamics. The large surface area afforded by the nanoporous aerogel (~1,000 m2/g) allows its storage performance to easily exceed capacities of high-pressure GH2 storage for an equivalent volume. With the integrated aerogel, subscale tests have shown that storage is increased by about 49% over a simple tank filled with GH2 at the same operating temperature and pressure. For LH2 conditions, the CFC is shown to operate at equivalent densities. For the techno-economic analysis (TEA), the source of hydrogen is compared between onsite steam methane reforming (SMR) and onsite solar photovoltaic (PV) panels providing power to electrolyzers to produce GH2. The TEA compares pure hydrogen burning in a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) to hydrogen fuel cells with an overall net power output of 650 MW. The SMR system uses natural gas as an input and includes a carbon capture and storage (CCS) system. The levelized cost of electricity is developed based on the capital cost and operating cost of the systems. Sensitivities are discussed around the cost of natural gas, ranging from 1.93 USD per MMBTU to 6.75 USD per MMBTU, and carbon dioxide disposal, ranging from 7 USD per tonne to 10 USD per tonne. For comparison to the conventional CCGT baseline, a baseload scenario is adopted with 85% capacity factor. The results of the study show that onsite hydrogen generation from SMR is about 1 to 3 USD per kg over the life of the plant and the PV hydrogen production produces at 4 to 5 USD per kg. The cost of storage for CFC is compared to other systems, including high-pressure GH2 and atmospheric LH2. The system is shown to provide the lowest costs for all these options at the grid scale, due to its higher capacity than high-pressure GH2 and ability to operate at 80K, receiving refrigeration from liquid nitrogen systems reducing capital and operating costs when compared LH2 storage systems. SMR is competitive with CCGT at the gas prices, both of which have lower LCOE than the PV system. When accounting for variability in gas prices, the PV and electrolyzer system is less sensitive to these changes and provides the lowest LCOE across the whole range.
Reducing poly-Si thickness to minimize parasitic absorption on a light-receiving side of a TOPCon solar cell without suffering voltage losses after metallization is a challenge in optimizing TOPCon performance. As an alternative to fire-through pastes, we investigate low-temperature Ag paste to SiO2/poly-Si passivating contacts through fabrication of electrical test structures to characterize the passivation quality and electrical transport across the metallized interface. With current paste chemistries, we find that solvent wetting of the poly-Si surface before evaporation and non-volatile binder resin adhesion to the surface after curing are major impediments which prevent Ag contact formation. However, low- resistance poly-Si/Ag interfaces formed with physical vapour deposition similarly degrade after annealing, indicating contacting issues related to the Ag content even in the absence of the organic paste components.
The Village of Questa, New Mexico is aiming to become a regional clean energy hub with robust and diverse employment opportunities for the local community supported by the energy sector and by other businesses inspired or attracted by abundant clean energy, outdoor recreation, and cultural opportunities. A coalition of stakeholders in the Village of Questa, comprising the Village, Kit Carson Electric Cooperative (KCEC), Questa Economic Development Fund, and Chevron, is exploring options to develop hydrogen production facilities as an opportunity to create jobs, provide reliable clean energy, and utilize former mine resources. Questa is home to a molybdenum mine owned by Chevron that closed in 2014. Several residents in Questa and surrounding communities lost their jobs when the mine closed and transitioned from active operations into environmental remediation. Although remediation efforts have been ongoing since 2014 and are expected to continue for at least 16 more years, the number of jobs with Chevron is much smaller now than it was before the closure. Between available workforce, brownfield land, and water rights formerly supporting mine operations but now in a transition period, there are considerable local resources that could be directed toward clean energy generation. Questa's electricity supply is already 100% solar during daylight hours thanks to Kit Carson Electric Cooperative's (KCEC's) strategic decision-making and partnering over the last decade. Now, Questa, KCEC, and Chevron are exploring the potential costs and benefits of siting an electrolytic hydrogen production facility and additional solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity in Questa to further advance the region's clean energy economy. In this report, we estimated the potential economic impacts (i.e., jobs, value added, gross output, tax revenue) of constructing and operating a combined hydrogen (32 MW polymer electrolyte membrane electrolizer + 7.5 MW fuel cell) and solar facility (22.5 MW) in the Village of Questa, as well as the resulting economic spillovers to Taos County and the state of New Mexico. We employ an input-output model that leverages IMPLAN's economic data for the region complemented by construction and operating expenses estimated by NREL and feedback from the local coalition to evaluate the direct, indirect and induced effects of the project construction (transient impacts) and operation (more permanent impacts). Based on the area's average trade profile, feedback from the coalition and current market conditions, these projects are expected to support 487 full-time equivalent jobs during construction, generating $\$24$ million in income for those workers and $\$82$ million in local economic activity in the state. Of those jobs, 106 are expected to be construction sector jobs. These investments are also estimated to add $\$36.5$ million to New Mexico's gross state product (GSP). In the Village of Questa, we estimate 16 jobs will be supported in construction and transportation industries, generating $\$0.9$ million in earnings. In Taos County, the construction phase is expected to support 285 jobs primarily in construction and professional services, while manufacturing jobs dominate the results for the Rest of New Mexico. The Village is also estimated to receive $\$0.9$ million in tax revenue from the construction phase alone. Once in operation, the project continues to impact the state and Questa. Around 20 jobs (full-time equivalent for each year of operation) are supported across New Mexico, with approximately 11 directly employed in Questa by both facilities. The total annual local economic activity supported by ongoing operations is just over $\$1.3$ million/yr, generating $\$1.6$ million/yr in additional income in the state. Annual operations are estimated to add $\$2.1$ million to the state's GSP. The Village is expected to receive around $\$43,000$/yr in tax revenue. Impacts vary significantly depending on which businesses are supplying materials, equipment and services, and where construction workers reside. Choosing local suppliers will most benefit Questa and the New Mexico economy, adding up to 500 jobs during construction and 13 long-term jobs. Local and state governments may consider ways to incentivize local businesses in order to maximize economic benefits.
The Village of Questa, New Mexico is aiming to become a regional clean energy hub with robust and diverse employment opportunities for the local community supported by the energy sector and by other businesses inspired or attracted by abundant clean energy, outdoor recreation, and cultural opportunities. A coalition of stakeholders in the Village of Questa, comprising the Village, Kit Carson Electric Cooperative (KCEC), Questa Economic Development Fund, and Chevron, is exploring options to develop hydrogen production facilities as an opportunity to create jobs, provide reliable clean energy, and utilize former mine resources. Questa is home to a molybdenum mine owned by Chevron that closed in 2014. Several residents in Questa and surrounding communities lost their jobs when the mine closed and transitioned from active operations into environmental remediation. Although remediation efforts have been ongoing since 2014 and are expected to continue for at least 16 more years, the number of jobs with Chevron is much smaller now than it was before the closure. Between available workforce, brownfield land, and water rights formerly supporting mine operations but now in a transition period, there are considerable local resources that could be directed toward clean energy generation. Questa's electricity supply is already 100% solar during daylight hours thanks to Kit Carson Electric Cooperative's (KCEC's) strategic decision-making and partnering over the last decade. Now, Questa, KCEC, and Chevron are exploring the potential costs and benefits of siting an electrolytic hydrogen production facility and additional solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity in Questa to further advance the region's clean energy economy. In this report, we estimated the potential economic impacts (i.e., jobs, value added, gross output, tax revenue) of constructing and operating a combined hydrogen (32 MW polymer electrolyte membrane electrolizer + 7.5 MW fuel cell) and solar facility (22.5 MW) in the Village of Questa, as well as the resulting economic spillovers to Taos County and the state of New Mexico. We employ an input-output model that leverages IMPLAN's economic data for the region complemented by construction and operating expenses estimated by NREL and feedback from the local coalition to evaluate the direct, indirect and induced effects of the project construction (transient impacts) and operation (more permanent impacts). Based on the area's average trade profile, feedback from the coalition and current market conditions, these projects are expected to support 487 full-time equivalent jobs during construction, generating $\$24$ million in income for those workers and $\$82$ million in local economic activity in the state. Of those jobs, 106 are expected to be construction sector jobs. These investments are also estimated to add $\$36.5$ million to New Mexico's gross state product (GSP). In the Village of Questa, we estimate 16 jobs will be supported in construction and transportation industries, generating $\$0.9$ million in earnings. In Taos County, the construction phase is expected to support 285 jobs primarily in construction and professional services, while manufacturing jobs dominate the results for the Rest of New Mexico. The Village is also estimated to receive $\$0.9$ million in tax revenue from the construction phase alone. Once in operation, the project continues to impact the state and Questa. Around 20 jobs (full-time equivalent for each year of operation) are supported across New Mexico, with approximately 11 directly employed in Questa by both facilities. The total annual local economic activity supported by ongoing operations is just over $\$1.3$ million/yr, generating $\$1.6$ million/yr in additional income in the state. Annual operations are estimated to add $\$2.1$ million to the state's GSP. The Village is expected to receive around $\$43,000$/yr in tax revenue. Impacts vary significantly depending on which businesses are supplying materials, equipment and services, and where construction workers reside. Choosing local suppliers will most benefit Questa and the New Mexico economy, adding up to 500 jobs during construction and 13 long-term jobs. Local and state governments may consider ways to incentivize local businesses in order to maximize economic benefits.