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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2025

Multiscale Characterization of Additive Manufacturing Components with Computed Tomography, 3D X-ray Microscopy, and Deep Learning

Additive manufacturing (AM) facilitates the creation of complex-geometry parts, driving advancements in lightweight aerospace components, high-efficiency engine cooling channels, and customized medical implants. However, ensuring the quality and reliability of AM parts remains challenging due to internal defects, surface irregularities, porosity, and residual trapped powder, which are often inaccessible to traditional inspection methods. Recent developments in X-ray computed tomography (XCT) and 3D X-ray microscopy (XRM), particularly systems equipped with resolution-at-a-distance (RaaD™) capabilities, enable high-resolution, non-destructive evaluation of AM components across multiple scales, from sub-micrometer to macroscopic levels. This paper explores modern XCT and XRM techniques for multiscale characterization of AM parts, focusing on their ability to detect and analyze defects such as porosity, cracks, inclusions, and surface roughness, while offering insights into defect formation mechanisms, material properties, and process-induced variations. The integration of deep learning (DL) frameworks, including Simurgh, DeepRecon, and DeepScout, enhances XCT/XRM workflows by reducing scan times, improving resolution recovery, and enabling accurate defect detection even with limited projection data. These DL-based methods overcome limitations of traditional reconstruction techniques, enabling faster, more reliable characterization of dense materials like Inconel 718 and novel alloys such as AlCe. Applications include process parameter optimization, high-throughput quality control, and multistage AM process evaluation, with DL-enhanced workflows accelerating analysis times from weeks to days. Correlative imaging approaches further validate XCT and XRM data against scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of physically sectioned samples, confirming the accuracy of DL-based reconstructions and enabling comprehensive defect analysis. While challenges remain in generalizing DL models to diverse materials and imaging conditions, improvements in resolution, noise reduction, and defect detection highlight the transformative potential of these methods. This multiscale and correlative approach enables precise identification and correlation of microstructural features with the overall performance of AM components. By integrating advanced XCT, XRM, and DL techniques, this paper demonstrates a significant leap forward in AM characterization, offering valuable insights into the relationships between processing parameters, microstructure, and part performance, and driving innovations that enhance the quality and reliability of AM products for demanding industrial applications.

Additive manufacturing↗

DOE OSTI2026

Identifying materials-level sources of performance variation in superconducting transmon qubits

The Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems Center, a U. S. Department of Energy National Quantum Information Science Research Center, has conducted a comprehensive and coordinated study using superconducting transmon qubit chips with known performance metrics to identify the underlying materials-level sources of device-to-device performance variation. Following qubit coherence measurements, these qubits of varying base superconducting metals and substrates have been examined with various non-destructive and invasive material characterization techniques at Northwestern University, Ames National Laboratory, and Fermilab as part of a blind study. We find trends in variations of the depth of the etched substrate trench, the thickness of the surface oxide, and the geometry of the sidewall, which when combined, lead to correlations with the T1 lifetime across different qubits on the same chip. In addition, we provide a list of features that varied from device to device, for which the impact on performance requires further studies. Finally, we identify two low-temperature characterization techniques that may potentially serve as proxy tools for qubit measurements. These insights provide materials-oriented solutions to not only reduce performance variations across neighboring devices but also to engineer and fabricate devices with optimal geometries to achieve performance metrics beyond the state-of-the-art values.

Murthy, Akshay A. [Fermilab] (ORCID:00000001767768↗

DOE OSTI2025

Hygrothermal Aging and Thermomechanical Characterization of As-Manufactured Tidal Turbine Blade Composites

This study investigates the hygrothermal aging behavior and thermomechanical properties of as-manufactured glass fiber-reinforced epoxy and thermoplastic composite tidal turbine blades. The blades were previously deployed in a marine environment and subsequently analyzed through a comprehensive suite of material characterization techniques, including hygrothermal aging, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), tensile testing and X-ray computed tomography (XCT). Hygrothermal aging experiments revealed that while thermoplastic composites exhibited lower overall water absorption (0.78% vs. 0.47%), they had significantly higher diffusion coefficients than epoxy (2.1 vs. 12.1 × 10 −13 m 2 s −1 ), suggesting faster saturation in operational environments. DMA results demonstrated that water ingress caused plasticization in epoxy matrices, reducing the glass transition temperature and increasing damping (112 °C to 104 °C), while thermoplastic composites showed more stable thermal behavior (87 °C glass transition temperature). Tensile testing revealed substantial reductions in ultimate strength (>40%) for both materials after prolonged water exposure, with minimal change in elastic modulus, highlighting the role of matrix degradation over fiber reinforcement. XCT image analysis showed that both composites were manufactured with high quality: no large voids or cracks were present, and the degree of misalignment was low. These findings inform future marine renewable energy composite designs by emphasizing the critical influence of moisture on long-term structural integrity and the need for optimized material systems in harsh marine environments. This work provides a rare real-world comparison of epoxy and recyclable thermoplastic tidal turbine blades, showing how laboratory aging tests and advanced imaging reveal the influence of material and manufacturing choices on long-term marine durability.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗

DOE OSTI2025

An Internal Digital Image Correlation Technique for High-Strain Rate Dynamic Experiments

Full-field, quantitative visualization techniques, such as digital image correlation (DIC), have unlocked vast opportunities for experimental mechanics. However, DIC has traditionally been a surface measurement technique, and has not been extended to perform measurements on the interior of specimens for dynamic, full-scale laboratory experiments. This limitation restricts the scope of physics which can be investigated through DIC measurements, especially in the context of heterogeneous materials. The focus of this study is to develop a method for performing internal DIC measurements in dynamic experiments. The aim is to demonstrate its feasibility and accuracy across a range of stresses (up to 650 MPa), strain rates (10 3 - 10 6 s -1 ), and high-strain rate loading conditions (e.g., ramped and shock wave loading). Internal DIC is developed based on the concept of applying a speckle pattern at an inner-plane of a transparent specimen. The high-speed imaging configuration is coupled to the traditional dynamic experimental setups, and is focused on the internal speckle pattern. During the experiment, while the sample deforms dynamically, in-plane, two-dimensional deformations are measured via correlation of the internal speckle pattern. In this study, the viability and accuracy of the internal DIC technique is demonstrated for split-Hopkinson (Kolsky) pressure bar (SHPB) and plate impact experiments. The internal DIC experimental technique is successfully demonstrated in both the SHPB and plate impact experiments. In the SHPB setting, the accuracy of the technique is excellent throughout the deformation regime, with measurement noise of approximately 0.2% strain. In the case of plate impact experiments, the technique performs well, with error and measurement noise of 1% strain. The internal DIC technique has been developed and demonstrated to work well for full-scale dynamic high-strain rate and shock laboratory experiments, and the accuracy is quantified. Here, the technique can aid in investigating the physics and mechanics of the dynamic behavior of materials, including local deformation fields around dynamically loaded material heterogeneities.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Methodologies and strategies for detecting fiber orientation in polymeric fiber-reinforced composites

In this review paper different methods and techniques for representing fiber orientation in advanced polymer matrix composites are presented. A description of the effect of fiber orientation on processing, fabrication and mechanical properties of a composite material is presented. The paper discusses the mathematical modeling and modeling techniques for fiber structure representation in polymeric composites, with an emphasis on fiber orientation in a composite part. The paper is divided into two sections; namely—destructive techniques and non-destructive techniques. The capabilities and limitations of each technique with respect to fiber orientation detection and measurements are discussed.

composites↗

DOE OSTI2026

FIB-ToF-SIMS characterization of irradiated U-10Zr

Post-irradiation examination (PIE) is critical for the performance assessment and qualification of nuclear fuels. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) is a powerful materials characterization technique that allows for elemental and isotopic mapping with a depth resolution greater than EDS and EPMA. However, it has not yet been applied to PIE of metallic nuclear fuel. Here, in this work, we characterize an fast neutron spectrum irradiated U-10Zr fuel sample using a time-of-flight SIMS (ToF-SIMS) system connected to a FIB/SEM system, which allows for flexible sample analysis compared to a dedicated ToF-SIMS instrument. Analysis of the resulting hyperspectral micrograph data was aided by the development of an unsupervised machine learning (ML) algorithm that iterates on existing methods to segment the 3D micrographic datasets based on the similarity of mass spectra. The results showed that the FIB-ToF-SIMS instrument was potentially capable of spatially resolving closed fission gas bubbles in 3D by continued ion sputtering of the analyzed volume. Additionally, the ML algorithm proved useful in revealing the chemical segregation of light fission products (those with an atomic mass between approximately 85–105 amu, such as ruthenium and rhodium) plus matrix zirconium, heavy fission products (those with an atomic mass between approximately 135–150 amu, such as the lanthanides) and uranium. Future studies are planned to conduct FIB-ToF-SIMS analysis on more irradiated U-Zr samples to study the constituent redistribution.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2025

In-Situ Synchrotron X-Ray Diffraction of Ultrasonic Microstructural Refinement During Solidification in a Commercial Al–Si–Mg Alloy

This study reports the first use of in-situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) to study the effects of ultrasonic melt processing (USMP) on phase and grain size evolution during solidification in a commercial Al–Si–Mg casting alloy. USMP is a technique that, when applied to aluminum as it solidifies, can be used to refine the local microstructure of large-scale castings. Analysis of the in-situ SXRD data to estimate the average grain size of primary α-Al grains during USMP demonstrates that USMP slows the growth rate of α-Al grains and reduces grain size by 36 pct. Furthermore, there is also evidence that USMP causes the primary α-Al grains to move relative to the X-ray beam; such motion increases the probability of primary α-Al grains colliding and fragmenting. This movement becomes constrained at the onset of the Al–Si binary eutectic, suggesting that USMP ceases to effectively refine the microstructure once the Al–Si binary eutectic begins to form. Complementary laboratory-scale X-ray diffraction (XRD) data were used to correlate the lattice parameters of the α-Al and Si (D-A4) phases with temperature to estimate cooling rate during solidification. Thus, this study can guide the design of novel castings with spatially distributed fine-grained regions produced using local ultrasonic processing.

Aluminum Alloys↗

DOE OSTI2025

Unveiling Feedstock Variability: Insights into Corn Stover Conversion - Part I: Physicochemical Properties and Self-Degradation

Transforming agricultural waste into biofuels and bioproducts is crucial to advancing a low-carbon bioeconomy. However, the inherent variability in the composition and quality introduces uncertainties in the conversion efficiency and poses challenges in process development. Through integrating a high-throughput conversion system, material characterization techniques, and advanced data analysis tools, this study investigates the variability of corn stover and its subsequent impacts on carbohydrate conversion. The findings reveal that indoor storage substantially reduces the moisture and ash content and soil contamination, while other properties remain largely unchanged. Self-degradation due to microbial activity during storage decreases the carbohydrate content of corn stover but enhances glucose and xylose yields. A negative correlation is observed between sugar yields and lignin content across samples with varying ash and moisture content. The inhibitory effect of lignin diminishes in self-degraded samples likely due to the disrupted cell wall structure. Although self-degradation slightly increases cellulose crystallinity, no strong correlation was observed between the crystallinity and sugar yield. Hot water pretreatment under mild conditions effectively mitigates inherent variability, consistently improving the sugar yield from corn stover by up to 50%. By elucidating the feedstock variability and its impact on convertibility, these findings offer valuable insights into appropriate feedstock handling and management, highlighting potential strategies to address variability challenges.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2025

A self-supervised robotic system for autonomous contact-based spatial mapping of semiconductor properties

Integrating robotically driven contact-based material characterization techniques into self-driving laboratories can enhance measurement quality, reliability, and throughput. While deep learning models support robust autonomy, current methods lack reliable pixel-precision positioning and require extensive labeled data. To overcome these challenges, we propose an approach for building self-supervised autonomy into contact-based robotic systems that teach the robot to follow domain expert measurement principles at high throughputs. We demonstrate the performance of this approach by autonomously driving a 4-DOF robotic probe for 24 hours to characterize semiconductor photoconductivity at 3025 uniquely predicted poses across a gradient of drop-casted perovskite film compositions, achieving throughputs of more than 125 measurements per hour. Spatially mapping photoconductivity onto each drop-casted film reveals compositional trends and regions of inhomogeneity, valuable for identifying manufacturing defects. With this self-supervised neural network–driven robotic system, we enable high-precision and reliable automation of contact-based characterization techniques at high throughputs, thereby allowing measurement of previously inaccessible yet important semiconductor properties for self-driving laboratories.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗

DOE OSTI2024

Binder-Coated Carbon Cloth Electrodes for All-Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are a promising solution for integrating intermittent renewable energy sources into the existing power grid. However, enhancing the electrochemical performance of VRFBs is critical for their widespread adoption in grid-scale energy storage. This study investigates the impact of adding a porous binder to a carbon-cloth electrode, with a focus on optimizing thermal activation conditions. The electrochemical performance of the binder-coated electrodes compared to uncoated electrodes is evaluated through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, polarization curve measurements, and charge-discharge cycling. The surface morphology and structural integrity of the binder-coated electrodes at each activation stage are examined using various material characterization techniques to assess the effects of thermal activation. The results are benchmarked against the experiments using non-coated electrodes to determine the performance improvements offered by the binder coating. Notably, the study reveals that binder-coated electrodes exhibit significantly lower resistance and improved efficiency compared to their uncoated counterparts, with optimal activation conditions enhancing performance metrics crucial for VRFB applications. These findings provide valuable insights for further optimizing electrode design and activation strategies, advancing the development of more efficient VRFB systems for large-scale energy storage.

Caiado, Ashley A.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Characterizing Microwave Losses in Superconducting Coaxial Cables for Quantum Systems

As superconducting quantum systems scale up to enable applications like large-scale quantum computing, challenges such as fabrication yield, wiring complexity, and microwave crosstalk drive the need for high-fidelity, low-loss, modular interconnects. In recent experiments, the performance of these interconnects is often limited by cable loss, a factor that becomes even more critical as we aim for higher fidelity operations and connect increasingly coherent modules. In this talk, we present a detailed characterization of microwave losses in commercially available superconducting cables and discuss how material characterization techniques can be useful for understanding their microscopic origin.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Identifying Decoherence Mechanisms in Superconducting Qubits through Advanced Materials Characterization

Although superconducting qubits have emerged as a leading technology platform for quantum computing through large improvements in device coherence times and gate fidelity in recent years, the presence of defects and impurities at the interfaces and surfaces in the constituent materials continue to limit performance and serve as a critical barrier in achieving scalable quantum systems. Understanding and eliminating these sources of quantum decoherence in superconducting qubit devices requires dedicated studies aimed at establishing robust structure-property relationships that will enable researchers to target and eliminate defects strategically. As part of the Superconducting Materials and Systems (SQMS) center, we have extensively employed state-of-the-art materials characterization techniques, including scanning/transmission electron microscopy, secondary ion mass spectrometry, atom probe tomography, x-ray diffraction, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy in conjunction with device measurements to elucidate such relationships. In this talk, I will discuss some of our recent findings, including linking atomic defects to microwave loss in surface oxides, linking impurities in the Josephson Junction to qubit parameters, and linking low temperature precipitates to device performance. By applying these insights, we have been able to strategically develop and implement mitigation strategies for reliable fabrication of high coherence superconducting qubits.

Murthy, A. [Fermilab] (ORCID:0000000176776866)↗

DOE OSTI2026

Identifying Decoherence Mechanisms in Superconducting Qubits through Advanced Materials Characterization

Murthy, A. [Fermilab] (ORCID:0000000176776866)↗

DOE OSTI2025

Three-dimensional characterization of modifications in sapphire exposed to laser-induced damage using multimodal spectral microimaging

Sapphire (Al 2 O 3 ) is a commonly used dielectric material with many applications in lasers and optical systems. Owing to its high resistivity to laser induced damage, it is particularly suitable for use in high power laser systems. This work focuses on developing techniques to characterize material modifications in sapphire. These techniques were applied following localized laser induced ablation, commonly referred to as laser-damage, resulting from exposure to single 100-ps and 6-ns pulses. Measurements of fluorescence-based piezospectroscopy and confocal Raman microscopy were performed with spatial resolution on the order of 1 μ m. Raman microscopy reveals that the relaxation of material exposed to the rapid laser heating, elastic and viscoplastic deformation, melting, and solidification leads to the formation of a polycrystalline material phase. In addition, narrowband fluorescence lines, referred to as R 1 and R 2 , exhibit pressure-sensitive changes to their spectral profiles, allowing 3D internal stresses to be recorded with spatial resolution of the order of a few micrometers.

Laser-damage↗

DOE OSTI2025

Examples of X-Ray Characterization Techniques in Energy Storage Research

Lithium-ion batteries have revolutionized the portable electronics and transportation sectors. Their performance is often critically dependent on the crystal structures of the anode and cathode electrode materials, which must enable the transport and reversible storage of lithium ions into and out of the lattice. Because lithium is a low-Z element, characterization of materials for lithium-ion batteries can be particularly challenging. Regardless, X-ray techniques enable analysis of material structures to better understand how battery materials perform and degrade, particularly when combined with other materials characterization and electrochemical characterization techniques. While X-ray techniques are most often used in battery research for phase identification of crystal structures, X-ray characterization techniques are also used for a wide variety of other purposes. I will discuss several examples from my research with various collaborators on several projects that highlight the impact that X-ray characterization techniques can have on battery research. The first example will focus on low-temperature microwave-assisted solvothermal synthesis of vanadium-doped LiFePO4 cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries. (1,2) Through a combination of electrochemical and materials characterization, we determined that low temperature synthesis resulted in metastable phases that enabled incorporation of higher dopant levels than resulting from high-temperature synthesis of thermodynamically stable phases. Rietveld refinement of X-ray diffraction data enabled understanding of how lattice parameters changed with doping levels and synthesis temperature. X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy enabled understanding of the vanadium and iron oxidation states to confirm how vacancies in the structure caused by doping were charge compensated. This was important to understand because the literature suggests doping can improve LiFePO4 electrical conductivity, which improves battery charge and discharge rates. The second example will focus on understanding residual strain in lithium metal anodes. Lithium-ion batteries typically use graphite anodes, but the charge-storage capacity can be theoretically improved ~10x by using lithium metal as the anode material instead. However, lithium anodes suffer from growth of high-aspect-ratio features, such as dendrites, that can pierce nanoporous polymer separators and lead to short circuits and fires. External pressure is commonly applied to cells to enable better morphological control. We hypothesized that applied pressure may promote strain and possibly work hardening during electrochemical cycling, which motivated us to look for evidence of residual strain in lithium metal cycled under applied pressure using X-ray diffraction and sin2(..psi..) analysis. We found that lithium electrodeposited under high pressure exhibited in-plane compressive strain and that that lithium electrodeposited under low pressure did not. (3) The residual strain that accompanies electrodeposition under high pressure may lead to work hardening, which may explain how a soft metal like lithium can puncture separators and why higher pressure does not always decrease short circuits. (4-6) References: 1) Harrison, K. L.; Manthiram, A. Microwave-Assisted Solvothermal Synthesis and Characterization of Metastable LiFe1- x (VO) x PO4 Cathodes. Inorganic chemistry 2011, 50(8), 3613-3620. 2) Harrison, K. L.; Bridges, C. A.; Paranthaman, M. P.; Segre, C. U.; Katsoudas, J.; Maroni, V. A.; Idrobo, J. C.; Goodenough, J. B.; Manthiram, A. Temperature Dependence of Aliovalent-Vanadium Doping in LiFePO4 Cathodes. Chemistry of Materials 2013, 25(5), 768-781. 3) Rodriguez, M. A.; Harrison, K. L.; Goriparti, S.; Griego, J. J.; Boyce, B. L.; Perdue, B. R. Use of a Be-Dome Holder for Texture and Strain Characterization of Li Metal Thin Films via Sin2 (..psi..) Methodology. Powder Diffraction 2020, 35(2), 89-97. 4) Jungjohann, K. L.; Gannon, R. N.; Goriparti, S.; Randolph, S. J.; Merrill, L. C.; Johnson, D. C.; Zavadil, K. R.; Harris, S. J.; Harrison, K. L. Cryogenic Laser Ablation Reveals Short-Circuit Mechanism in Lithium Metal Batteries. ACS Energy Letters 2021, 6(6), 2138-2144. 5) Harrison, K. L.; Merrill, L. C.; Long, D. M.; Randolph, S. J.; Goriparti, S.; Christian, J.; Warren, B.; Roberts, S. A.; Harris, S. J.; Perry, D. L. Cryogenic Electron Microscopy Reveals That Applied Pressure Promotes Short Circuits in Li Batteries. Iscience 2021, 24(12). 6) Harrison, K. L.; Goriparti, S.; Merrill, L. C.; Long, D. M.; Warren, B.; Roberts, S. A.; Perdue, B. R.; Casias, Z.; Cuillier, P.; Boyce, B. L. Effects of Applied Interfacial Pressure on Li-Metal Cycling Performance and Morphology in 4 M LiFSI in DME. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2021, 13(27), 31668-31679.

batteries↗

DOE OSTI2025

Data Analysis, Machine Learning, & More

At LANL, I have had the privilege and pleasure of working with Dr. Tika Kafle, an optics and condensed matter physicist at the MagLab in TA-35. Dr. Kafle’s research primarily involves the Angle Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (ARPES) technique of characterizing materials. More specifically, Dr. Kafle works with Time Resolved ARPES (Tr-ARPES), which extends this technique into the time domain.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

A Review of Advanced Characterization Methods and Techniques for Amorphous and Poorly Crystalline Materials Applicable to Cementitious Waste Forms

This review covers advanced characterization methods of cementitious materials. The particular focus is to understand cementitious compositions with amorphous content because conventional techniques such as X-ray diffraction are more applicable to materials with long range order. Also of interest is advanced characterization that provides deeper insights into properties such as porosity. There are five groups of characterization methods discussed in this review which are: electron beam/microscopy, X-ray, neutron diffraction and scattering, nuclear magnetic resonance, and optical techniques. The techniques can be further grouped by the categories of nanoscale structural understanding (transmission electron microscopy and pair distribution function), microscale structural understanding (focused ion beam and x-ray tomography), microscopic elemental distributions (energy dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence), and chemical binding information (electron energy loss spectroscopy, x-ray absorption spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, Raman spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy), with advantages and disadvantages of each method discussed. The recommendation for further research is to begin with techniques that are easier to prepare samples for, measure, and analyze, such as the optical techniques of Raman and infrared spectroscopy. If more information is needed, pursue collaborations, other techniques, or proposals for beam time at the synchrotron sources.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2024

Covalent integration of polymers and porous organic frameworks

Covalent integration of polymers and porous organic frameworks (POFs), including metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs) and hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs), represent a promising strategy for overcoming the existing limitations of traditional porous materials. This integration allows for the combination of the advantages of polymers, i.e., flexibility, processability and chemical versatility etc., and the superiority of POFs, like the structural integrity, tunable porosity and the high surface area, creating a type of hybrid materials. These resulting polymer-POF hybrid materials exhibit enhanced mechanical strength, chemical stability and functional diversity, thus opening up new opportunities for applications across a large variety of fields, such as gas separation, catalysis, biomedical applications, environmental remediation and energy storage. In this review, an overview of synthetic routes and strategies on how to covalently integrate different polymers with various POFs is discussed, especially with a particular focus on methods like polymerization within, on and among POF structures. To investigate the unique properties and functions of these resultant hybrid materials, the characterization techniques, including nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), gas adsorption analysis (BET) and computational modeling and machine learning, are also presented. The ability of polymer-POFs to manipulate the pore environments at the molecular level affords these materials a wide range of applications, providing a versatile platform for future advancements in material science. Looking forward, to fully realize the potential of these hybrid materials, the authors highlight the scalability, green synthesis methods, and potential for stimuli-responsive polymer-POF materials as critical areas for future research.

Hossain, Md Amjad↗