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Materials Data on Li2CO3 by Materials Project
Li2CO3 is Clathrate-derived structured and crystallizes in the monoclinic C2/c space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form a mixture of corner and edge-sharing LiO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 1.92–2.04 Å. C4+ is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to three O2- atoms. There is one shorter (1.29 Å) and two longer (1.31 Å) C–O bond length. There are two inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to two equivalent Li1+ and one C4+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded to three equivalent Li1+ and one C4+ atom to form a mixture of distorted corner and edge-sharing OLi3C tetrahedra.
Materials Data on Li2Co3(P2O7)2 by Materials Project
Li2Co3(P2O7)2 crystallizes in the triclinic P-1 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded in a 4-coordinate geometry to four O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.03–2.08 Å. There are two inequivalent Co2+ sites. In the first Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra and edges with two CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.06–2.34 Å. In the second Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra and edges with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.11–2.24 Å. There are two inequivalent P5+ sites. In the first P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with four CoO6 octahedra and a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 52–64°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.52–1.62 Å. In the second P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with five CoO6 octahedra and a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 50–63°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.52–1.59 Å. There are seven inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded to one Li1+, two Co2+, and one P5+ atom to form distorted corner-sharing OLiCo2P tetrahedra. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 1-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two equivalent Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the seventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms.
Materials Data on Li2CO3 by Materials Project
Li2CO3 crystallizes in the hexagonal P6_3/mcm space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded to six equivalent O2- atoms to form a mixture of corner, edge, and face-sharing LiO6 octahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 57°. All Li–O bond lengths are 2.16 Å. C4+ is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to three equivalent O2- atoms. All C–O bond lengths are 1.30 Å. O2- is bonded in a 1-coordinate geometry to four equivalent Li1+ and one C4+ atom.
Materials Data on Li2Co3(P2O7)2 by Materials Project
Li2Co3(P2O7)2 crystallizes in the triclinic P-1 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. there are two inequivalent Li1+ sites. In the first Li1+ site, Li1+ is bonded in a 5-coordinate geometry to five O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.02–2.60 Å. In the second Li1+ site, Li1+ is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to three O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.00–2.06 Å. There are three inequivalent Co2+ sites. In the first Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to five O2- atoms to form CoO5 trigonal bipyramids that share corners with five PO4 tetrahedra and edges with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.03–2.10 Å. In the second Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra and an edgeedge with one CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.03–2.26 Å. In the third Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form distorted CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra, an edgeedge with one CoO6 octahedra, and edges with two equivalent CoO5 trigonal bipyramids. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.08–2.29 Å. There are four inequivalent P5+ sites. In the first P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with four CoO6 octahedra, a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra, and a cornercorner with one CoO5 trigonal bipyramid. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 45–60°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.53–1.61 Å. In the second P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with four CoO6 octahedra, a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra, and a cornercorner with one CoO5 trigonal bipyramid. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 19–56°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.50–1.61 Å. In the third P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra, a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra, and corners with three equivalent CoO5 trigonal bipyramids. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 48°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.51–1.61 Å. In the fourth P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra and a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 54°. There is three shorter (1.54 Å) and one longer (1.62 Å) P–O bond length. There are fourteen inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 2-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded to three Li1+ and one P5+ atom to form distorted edge-sharing OLi3P trigonal pyramids. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the seventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 4-coordinate geometry to two Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the eighth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the ninth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the tenth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the eleventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the twelfth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the thirteenth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fourteenth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom.
Materials Data on Li2Co3(SiO4)2 by Materials Project
Computed materials data using density functional theory calculations. These calculations determine the electronic structure of bulk materials by solving approximations to the Schrodinger equation. For more information, see https://materialsproject.org/docs/calculations
Materials Data on Li2Co3(SeO3)4 by Materials Project
Computed materials data using density functional theory calculations. These calculations determine the electronic structure of bulk materials by solving approximations to the Schrodinger equation. For more information, see https://materialsproject.org/docs/calculations
Materials Data on Li2Co3(P2O7)2 by Materials Project
Computed materials data using density functional theory calculations. These calculations determine the electronic structure of bulk materials by solving approximations to the Schrodinger equation. For more information, see https://materialsproject.org/docs/calculations
Upgrading the Performance and Stability of Lithium, Manganese-Rich Layered Oxide Cathodes with Combined-Formic Acid and Spinel Coating Treatment
We report improving sluggish rate performance and cycling stability of Li, Mn-rich cathode materials (LMR) is of great importance for practical implementation. Here, dual surface modification on LMR particles with formic acid washing and spinel coating improves the electrochemical performance. Dilute formic acid can remove the Li2CO3 surface impurities and selectively reduce Ni while significantly increasing specific surface area by ~32 %, unlocking more electrochemically active surfaces. Spinel coating enhances cycle stability by suppressing detrimental side reactions at electrode-electrolyte interfaces at high voltage. Post-annealing temperature was found to significantly affect the cathode performance. Higher temperature favors diffusion of transition metal (TM)/Li ions of the spinel coating from surface to the bulk, removing the coating by possible reconstruction into the layered structure and thus degrading the performance. The spinel coating also appears to increase Co 3+ segregation on the particle surface. Compared to the original material, the optimized sample demonstrates 47 % higher capacity retention at 3C and retains 89 % of initial capacity after 150 cycles at 0.5C. Besides, the specific energy density of 523 Wh kg -1 can be attained after 150 cycles at 0.5C. Moreover, the post-cycling analysis of modified sample verifies a better structural integrity with less particle cracking. Altogether, this study portrays an alternative strategy to overcome the shortcomings of LMR cathode materials.
Marcus–Hush–Chidsey kinetics at electrode–electrolyte interfaces
Electrochemical kinetics at electrode–electrolyte interfaces limit the performance of devices including fuel cells and batteries. While the importance of moving beyond Butler–Volmer kinetics and incorporating the effect of electronic density of states of the electrode has been recognized, a unified framework that incorporates these aspects directly into electrochemical performance models is still lacking. In this work, we explicitly account for the density functional theory-calculated density of states numerically in calculating electrochemical reaction rates for a variety of electrode–electrolyte interfaces. We first show the utility of this for two cases related to Li metal electrodeposition and stripping on a Li surface and a Cu surface (anode-free configuration). The deviation in reaction rates is minor for cases with flat densities of states such as Li, but is significant for Cu due to nondispersive d-bands creating large variation. Finally, we consider a semiconducting case of a solid-electrolyte interphase consisting of LiF and Li2CO3 and note the importance of the Fermi level at the interface pinned by the redox reaction occurring there. We identify the asymmetry in reaction rates as a function of discharge/charge naturally within this approach.
Low temperature lithium production
A method and electrolysis cell for producing lithium metal at a low temperature. The method includes combining (i) acetonitrile and (ii) a cation bis(trihaloalkylsulfonyl)imide, cation bis(trihalosulfonyl)imidic acid, a cation bis(trihaloalkylsulfonyl)amide, or cation bis(trihaloalkylsulfonyl)amidic acid in a weight ratio of (i) to (ii) about 100:1 to about 5:1 to provide a non-aqueous electrolyte composition. A lithium compound selected from the group consisting of LiOH, Li2O and Li2CO3 is dissolved in the electrolyte composition to provide a lithium doped electrolyte composition. Power is applied to the electrolyte composition to form lithium metal on a cathode of an electrolysis cell. The lithium metal separated from the cathode has a purity of at least about 95 wt. %.
Unveiling the parasitic-reaction-driven surface reconstruction in Ni-rich cathode and the electrochemical role of Li 2 CO 3
Nickel-rich transition-metal oxides are widely regarded as promising cathode materials for high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries for emerging electric vehicles. However, achieving high energy density in Ni-rich cathodes is accompanied by substantial safety and cycle-life obstacles. The major issues of Ni-rich cathodes at high working potentials are originated from the unstable cathode-electrolyte interface, while the underlying mechanism of parasitic reactions towards surface reconstructions of cathode materials is not well understood. In this work, we controlled the Li 2 CO 3 impurity content on LiNi 0.83 Mn 0.1 Co 0.07 O 2 cathodes using air, tank-air, and O 2 synthesis environments. Home-built high-precision leakage current and on-line electrochemical mass spectroscopy experiments verify that Li 2 CO 3 impurity is a significant promoter of parasitic reactions on Ni-rich cathodes. The rate of parasitic reactions is strongly correlated to Li 2 CO 3 content and severe performance deterioration of Ni83 cathodes. The post-mortem characterizations via high-resolution transition electron microscope and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy depth profiles reveal that parasitic reactions promote more Ni reduction and O deficiency and even rock-salt phase transformation at the surface of cathode materials. Here, our observation suggests that surface reconstructions have a strong affiliation to parasitic reactions that create chemically acidic environment to etch away the lattice oxygen and offer the electrical charge to reduce the valence state of transition metal. Thus, this study advances our understanding on surface reconstructions of Ni-rich cathodes and prepares us for searching for rational strategies.
Effects of Ball Milling on the Electrochemical Capacity and Interfacial Stability of Li 2 MnO 3 Cathode Materials
The cycling mechanism of Li 2 MnO 3 cathode materials synthesized by conventional solid-state methods at high temperatures (800-900 °C) has been intensively investigated. Previous studies showed that CO 2 and O 2 gas evolution accounts for most of the charge capacity, followed by some Mn reduction during discharge. In this work, we analyze the effects of ball milling on the structure, surface contaminant, and electrochemical capacity of Li 2 MnO 3 cathode material, with or without a graphitic fluoride (C-F) additive. At the same time, C-F is added to form a protective coating layer that reduces unwanted reactions with the electrolyte during later electrochemical cycling. We find that the C-F ball-milled material shows Li 2 MnO 3 /LiMnO 2 composite phases, while the purely ball-milled material shows a single Li 2 MnO 3 phase. Furthermore, we characterize surface species and gas evolution during the first cycle, which reveals the decomposition of Li 2 CO 3 and the carbonate electrolyte during the first charge, especially during the high potential region (>4.4 V), and the electrochemical reduction of only a small fraction of the evolved gas on the first discharge (<2.75 V). The appearance further demonstrates the repetitive nature of this process during charge and disappearance during discharge of Mn 2p 3/2 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra signals during the first two cycles. These processes result in first discharge specific capacities of only 155 and 170 mAh/g after first charge specific capacities of 210 and 320 mAh/g for the pure ball-milled and ball-milled with C-F materials, respectively. These studies demonstrate the interfacial instability introduced by ball milling. However, the electrochemical capacity is significantly increased, necessitating further investigation to determine whether ball milling can activate Mn-containing cathode materials.
Life-cycle analysis of lithium chemical production in the United States
To achieve its ambitious national decarbonization goals, the United States has incentivized the domestic production of materials critical to decarbonization technologies, including lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). These materials include battery-grade lithium chemicals (Li-chemicals), for which the U.S. is encouraging domestic production from resources (sedimentary clays and low Li-content brines (LLCBs)) that differ substantially from conventional sources (Salar brines and spodumene ores). Here, we conduct the first-ever comparative life-cycle analysis of Li-chemical production from all alternative resources (in the U.S.) and conventional sources based on data from company literature for U.S.-related production efforts. Two energy sources (electricity and natural gas), four material inputs (HCl, NaOH, Na 2 CO 3 , and CaO), and process carbon emissions dominate the life-cycle impacts (≥90% share) of U.S.-based Li-chemical production. Comparatively, the life-cycle impacts of alternative sources-based Li-chemicals lie between those for Li-chemical production from Salar brines and from spodumene ores. At the battery level, the shift in Li-chemical sourcing causes a notable change in LIB's life-cycle impacts (by ~5–15%), independent of the cathode chemistry employed. Our study highlights the relevance of a decarbonized electric grid and the capture and sequestration of process carbon emissions generated during Li-chemical and upstream material production in decarbonizing Li-chemical production from alternative sources. Further decarbonization would necessitate using decarbonized material inputs and a shift away from natural gas towards renewable energy for alternative resource-based Li-chemical production processes.
Functional Surface Coating to Enhance the Stability of LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2
Parasitic reactions are responsible for continuous performance loss during the normal operation and storage of lithium-ion batteries, particularly for those using nickel-rich cathode materials. Among many contributors, residual Li 2 CO 3 on the surface of nickel-rich cathodes plays a detrimental role in promoting parasitic reactions, and hence accelerates the performance loss of those cathode materials. In this work, a wet impregnation process was utilized to convert the detrimental Li 2 CO 3 and LiOH impurities into a beneficial functional surface coating comprising phosphates. Specifically, hydro-phosphates were used as the functional surface modification agents to mitigate the detrimental effect of surface residuals. The best electrochemical performance was achieved by modifying LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2 with a diluted dihydro-phosphate solution (pKa = 7.2), while the metal cation had a negligible impact on the electrochemical performance. This work provides a cheap and simple method for enabling the high performance of nickel-rich cathodes.