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The properties of and analytical methods for detection of LiOH and Li2CO3
Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is used as a CO2 absorbent in the Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) Portable Life Support System (PLSS). The first objective was to survey parameters that may be used to indicate conversion of LiOH to Li2CO3, and compile a list of all possible properties, including physical, chemical, structural, and electrical, that may serve to indicate the occurrence of reaction. These properties were compiled for the reactant (LiOH), the intermediate monohydrate compound (LiOH.H2O), and the final product (Li2CO3). The second objective was to survey measurement and analytical techniques which may be used in conjunction with each of the properties identified above, to determine the extent of conversion of LiOH to Li2CO3. Both real-time and post-run techniques were of interest. The techniques were also evaluated in terms of complexity, technology readiness, materials/equipment availability, and cost, where possible.
Materials Data on Li2CO3 by Materials Project
Li2CO3 is Clathrate-derived structured and crystallizes in the monoclinic C2/c space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form a mixture of corner and edge-sharing LiO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 1.92–2.04 Å. C4+ is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to three O2- atoms. There is one shorter (1.29 Å) and two longer (1.31 Å) C–O bond length. There are two inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to two equivalent Li1+ and one C4+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded to three equivalent Li1+ and one C4+ atom to form a mixture of distorted corner and edge-sharing OLi3C tetrahedra.
Materials Data on Li2Co3(P2O7)2 by Materials Project
Li2Co3(P2O7)2 crystallizes in the triclinic P-1 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded in a 4-coordinate geometry to four O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.03–2.08 Å. There are two inequivalent Co2+ sites. In the first Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra and edges with two CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.06–2.34 Å. In the second Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra and edges with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.11–2.24 Å. There are two inequivalent P5+ sites. In the first P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with four CoO6 octahedra and a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 52–64°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.52–1.62 Å. In the second P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with five CoO6 octahedra and a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 50–63°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.52–1.59 Å. There are seven inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded to one Li1+, two Co2+, and one P5+ atom to form distorted corner-sharing OLiCo2P tetrahedra. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 1-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two equivalent Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the seventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms.
Materials Data on Li2CO3 by Materials Project
Li2CO3 crystallizes in the hexagonal P6_3/mcm space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded to six equivalent O2- atoms to form a mixture of corner, edge, and face-sharing LiO6 octahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 57°. All Li–O bond lengths are 2.16 Å. C4+ is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to three equivalent O2- atoms. All C–O bond lengths are 1.30 Å. O2- is bonded in a 1-coordinate geometry to four equivalent Li1+ and one C4+ atom.
Materials Data on Li2Co3(P2O7)2 by Materials Project
Li2Co3(P2O7)2 crystallizes in the triclinic P-1 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. there are two inequivalent Li1+ sites. In the first Li1+ site, Li1+ is bonded in a 5-coordinate geometry to five O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.02–2.60 Å. In the second Li1+ site, Li1+ is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to three O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.00–2.06 Å. There are three inequivalent Co2+ sites. In the first Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to five O2- atoms to form CoO5 trigonal bipyramids that share corners with five PO4 tetrahedra and edges with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.03–2.10 Å. In the second Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra and an edgeedge with one CoO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.03–2.26 Å. In the third Co2+ site, Co2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form distorted CoO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra, an edgeedge with one CoO6 octahedra, and edges with two equivalent CoO5 trigonal bipyramids. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 2.08–2.29 Å. There are four inequivalent P5+ sites. In the first P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with four CoO6 octahedra, a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra, and a cornercorner with one CoO5 trigonal bipyramid. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 45–60°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.53–1.61 Å. In the second P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with four CoO6 octahedra, a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra, and a cornercorner with one CoO5 trigonal bipyramid. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 19–56°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.50–1.61 Å. In the third P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra, a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra, and corners with three equivalent CoO5 trigonal bipyramids. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 48°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.51–1.61 Å. In the fourth P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra and a cornercorner with one PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 54°. There is three shorter (1.54 Å) and one longer (1.62 Å) P–O bond length. There are fourteen inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 2-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded to three Li1+ and one P5+ atom to form distorted edge-sharing OLi3P trigonal pyramids. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the seventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 4-coordinate geometry to two Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the eighth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the ninth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the tenth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the eleventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Li1+, one Co2+, and one P5+ atom. In the twelfth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the thirteenth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fourteenth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to two Co2+ and one P5+ atom.
Materials Data on Li2Co3(SiO4)2 by Materials Project
Computed materials data using density functional theory calculations. These calculations determine the electronic structure of bulk materials by solving approximations to the Schrodinger equation. For more information, see https://materialsproject.org/docs/calculations
Materials Data on Li2Co3(SeO3)4 by Materials Project
Computed materials data using density functional theory calculations. These calculations determine the electronic structure of bulk materials by solving approximations to the Schrodinger equation. For more information, see https://materialsproject.org/docs/calculations
Materials Data on Li2Co3(P2O7)2 by Materials Project
Computed materials data using density functional theory calculations. These calculations determine the electronic structure of bulk materials by solving approximations to the Schrodinger equation. For more information, see https://materialsproject.org/docs/calculations
The factors influencing the formation of Li2CO3 from LiOH and CO2
LiOH is used to remove CO2 from the atmosphere in three environmental control systems of the Shuttle program, and the investigation of the performance dependent parameters for the CO2 reaction with LiOH is reported. Emphasis is placed on LiOH quality acceptance criteria and on identifiying the relationships between the reaction rate and the following independent parameters: temperature, CO2 partial pressure (PP), H2O concentration in the solid, amount of remaining LiOH and the porosity of the LiOH pellets. Results showed that the reaction rate is proportional to the CO2 PP for PP at least as high as 40 mm Hg (5330 N/sq m). It is also noted that a significant difference in the reactivity of wet and dry LiOH was not detected.
The Au Cathode in the System Li2CO3-CO2-CO at 800 to 900 C
The lithium-CO2 battery has recently been proposed as an advanced concept for missions to Mars or Venus, planets with carbon dioxide atmospheres. This article discusses the initial evaluation of gold as a catalyst for the cathodic reduction of carbon dioxide in molten lithium carbonate. An attempt is then made to rationalize the experimental results by proposing a phenomenological model for the sequence of reactions at and around the electrode. Finally, inferences are made as to the viability of gold as a cathode catalyst for the proposed battery.
The Au Cathode in the System Li2CO3-CO2-CO at 800 to 900 C
Gold is one of several metals being evaluated at NASA Lewis Research Center as positive electrode catalysts for an alkali metal/molten alkali metal carbonate/carbon dioxide electrochemical cell. Such a cell is proposed for CO2-rich planetary atmospheres such as those of Mars and Venus. Its application could be as a primary power supply, as a secondary power supply recharged either 'chemically' by replenishment of the alkali metal or electrochemically from a central station power source, or as a converter of carbon dioxide to oxygen via a complete electrochemical cycle. For the work being reported, lithium was assumed to be the alkali metal of choice for the negative electrode of the cell, and therefore molten lithium carbonate was the electrolyte used in the Au electrode experiments. Cathodic linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) was the primary analytical technique for evaluating the performance of the Au cathode. interest comprised the cell temperature and the total pressure and composition of the reactant gas. In the absence of operational difficulties, the effect of bubbling the reactant gas through the melt was also determined. On the basis of the variation of electrode performance with changes in these parameters, inferences have been made concerning the electrochemical and chemical processes at and near the electrode. The results of post-test micrographic analyses of the Au cathode are also presented. An attempt is then made to project from the experimental results to some relevant conclusions pertaining to a gold cathode in a practical alkali metal - carbon dioxide cell.
Recycling Lithium Carbonate/Lithium Hydroxide Waste
Hazardous waste disposal problem eliminated by regeneration. Li2CO3/ LiOH recycling process relies on low solubility of alkali carbonates in corresponding hydroxides. Li2CO3 precipitate calcined to LI2O, then rehydrated LiOH. Regeneration eliminates need to dispose caustic waste and uses less energy than simple calcination of entire waste mass.
Upgrading the Performance and Stability of Lithium, Manganese-Rich Layered Oxide Cathodes with Combined-Formic Acid and Spinel Coating Treatment
We report improving sluggish rate performance and cycling stability of Li, Mn-rich cathode materials (LMR) is of great importance for practical implementation. Here, dual surface modification on LMR particles with formic acid washing and spinel coating improves the electrochemical performance. Dilute formic acid can remove the Li2CO3 surface impurities and selectively reduce Ni while significantly increasing specific surface area by ~32 %, unlocking more electrochemically active surfaces. Spinel coating enhances cycle stability by suppressing detrimental side reactions at electrode-electrolyte interfaces at high voltage. Post-annealing temperature was found to significantly affect the cathode performance. Higher temperature favors diffusion of transition metal (TM)/Li ions of the spinel coating from surface to the bulk, removing the coating by possible reconstruction into the layered structure and thus degrading the performance. The spinel coating also appears to increase Co 3+ segregation on the particle surface. Compared to the original material, the optimized sample demonstrates 47 % higher capacity retention at 3C and retains 89 % of initial capacity after 150 cycles at 0.5C. Besides, the specific energy density of 523 Wh kg -1 can be attained after 150 cycles at 0.5C. Moreover, the post-cycling analysis of modified sample verifies a better structural integrity with less particle cracking. Altogether, this study portrays an alternative strategy to overcome the shortcomings of LMR cathode materials.
Marcus–Hush–Chidsey kinetics at electrode–electrolyte interfaces
Electrochemical kinetics at electrode–electrolyte interfaces limit the performance of devices including fuel cells and batteries. While the importance of moving beyond Butler–Volmer kinetics and incorporating the effect of electronic density of states of the electrode has been recognized, a unified framework that incorporates these aspects directly into electrochemical performance models is still lacking. In this work, we explicitly account for the density functional theory-calculated density of states numerically in calculating electrochemical reaction rates for a variety of electrode–electrolyte interfaces. We first show the utility of this for two cases related to Li metal electrodeposition and stripping on a Li surface and a Cu surface (anode-free configuration). The deviation in reaction rates is minor for cases with flat densities of states such as Li, but is significant for Cu due to nondispersive d-bands creating large variation. Finally, we consider a semiconducting case of a solid-electrolyte interphase consisting of LiF and Li2CO3 and note the importance of the Fermi level at the interface pinned by the redox reaction occurring there. We identify the asymmetry in reaction rates as a function of discharge/charge naturally within this approach.
High-temperature molten salt thermal energy storage systems for solar applications
Alkali and alkaline earth carbonate latent-heat storage salts, metallic containment materials, and thermal conductivity enhancement materials were investigated to satisfy the high temperature (704 to 871 C) thermal energy storage requirements of advanced solar-thermal power generation concepts are described. Properties of the following six salts selected for compatibility studies are given: three pure carbonates, K2CO3, Li2CO3 and Na2CO3; two eutectic mixtures, BaCO3/Na2CO3 and K2CO3/NaCO3, and one off-eutectic mixture of Na2CO3/K2CO3.
High-temperature molten salt thermal energy storage systems for solar applications
Experimental results of compatibility screening studies of 100 salt/containment/thermal conductivity enhancement (TCE) combinations for the high temperature solar thermal application range of 704 deg to 871 C (1300 to 1600 F) are presented. Nine candidate containment/HX alloy materials and two TCE materials were tested with six candidate solar thermal alkali and alkaline earth carbonate storage salts (both reagent and technical grade of each). Compatibility tests were conducted with salt encapsulated in approx. 6.0 inch x 1 inch welded containers of test material from 300 to 3000 hours. Compatibility evaluations were end application oriented, considering the potential 30 year lifetime requirement of solar thermal power plant components. Analyses were based on depth and nature of salt side corrosion of materials, containment alloy thermal aging effects, weld integrity in salt environment, air side containment oxidation, and chemical and physical analyses of the salt. A need for more reliable, and in some cases first time determined thermophysical and transport property data was also identified for molten carbonates in the 704 to 871 C temperature range. In particular, accurate melting point (mp) measurements were performed for Li2CO3 and Na2CO3 while melting point, heat of fusion, and specific heat determinations were conducted on 81.3 weight percent Na2CO3-18.7 weight percent K2CO3 and 52.2 weight percent BaCO3-47.8 weight percent Na2CO3 to support future TES system design and ultimate scale up of solar thermal energy storage (TES) subsystems.