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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Effects of Limiting Container Diameter on Crater Morphometry in Laboratory Impact Experiments.

Laboratory impact experiments provide a mechanism to test and understand impact events that affect every planetary object in our Solar System. Impact experiments have been conducted on a wide variety of mediums (e.g., sand, ice, solid rock, regolith simulant [1–4]) in a variety of container sizes, depending on the laboratory. While the specific parameters of each impact experiment vary greatly from impacting medium, projectile type and size, speed, etc., there has not been any in depth analysis of the effects that limiting container dimensions might have on the resulting subsurface flow field and ultimately the crater structure. Here we asses the effects of container diameter by conducting a series of cratering experiments on five different container sizes. The results of this study will be informative to the impact community such that closer consideration will be taken regarding the selection of container size to insure the most high quality results with less interference from the boundary conditions.

Megan D. Mouser↗

NASA NTRS1979

Magnetic field and shock effects and remanent magnetization in a hypervelocity impact experiment

The impact of aluminum projectiles onto high-alumina terrestrial basalt blocks at 13-15 km/s in the presence of a variable magnetic field is studied. Plasma production but not field production was detected, and characteristics of the remanence and the shocked basalt are reported. Mineralogical data suggest that the magnetization acquired in the material near the craters is shock remanence. The experimental results might indicate that shock effects or possibly thermoremanence in ejecta fragments, may be responsible for part of the magnetization of the lunar surface.

Srnka, L. J.↗

NASA NTRS2024

Toward Prebiotic Chemistry on Titan: Impact Experiments on Organic Haze Particles

Impacts are critical to producing the aqueous environments necessary to stimulate prebiotic chemistry on Titan's surface. Furthermore, organic hazes resting on the surface are a likely feedstock of biomolecules. In this work, we conduct impact experiments on laboratory-produced organic haze particles and haze/sand mixtures and analyze these samples for life's building blocks. Samples of unshocked haze and sand particles are also analyzed to determine the change in biomolecule concentrations and distributions from shocking. Across all samples, we detect seven nucleobases, nine proteinogenic amino acids, and five other biomolecules (e.g., urea) using a blank subtraction procedure to eliminate signals due to contamination. We find that shock pressures of 13 GPa variably degrade nucleobases, amino acids, and a few other organics in haze particles and haze/sand mixtures; however, certain individual biomolecules become enriched or are even produced from these events. Xanthine, threonine, and aspartic acid are enriched or produced in impact experiments containing sand, suggesting these minerals may catalyze the production of these biomolecules. On the other hand, thymine and isoleucine/norleucine are enriched or produced in haze samples containing no sand, suggesting catalytic grains are not necessary for all impact shock syntheses. Uracil, glycine, proline, cysteine, and tyrosine are the most unstable to impact-related processing. These experiments suggest that impacts alter biomolecule distributions on Titan's surface, and that organic hazes co-occurring with fine-grained material on the surface may provide an initial source for further prebiotic chemistry on Titan.

impact experiments↗

NASA NTRS2000

Strain Rate Measurements in Vertical and Oblique Impact Experiments

Strain rate trends measured from projectile impact stress profiles differ from those in plate impact experiments. For oblique impacts, strain rates downrange are a factor of 2 higher than strain rates uprange at the same peak stress.

Dahl, J. M.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Unveiling Clues from Spacecraft Missions to Comets and Asteroids through Impact Experiments

The Deep Impact Spacecraft mission was the first to boldly face the challenge of impacting the surface of a comet, 9P/Tempel 1, to investigate surface and subsurface 'pristine' materials. The Stardust mission to Comet 81P/Wild 2 brought back an exciting surprise: shocked minerals which were likely altered during the comet's lifetime. Signatures of shock in meteorites also suggest that the violent past of the solar system has left our small bodies with signatures of impacts and collisions. These results have led to the question: How have impacts affected the evolutionary path taken by comets and asteroids, and what signatures can be observed? A future planetary mission to a near-Earth asteroid is proposing to take the next steps toward understanding small bodies through impacts. The mission would combine an ESA led AIM (Asteroid Impact Mission) with a JHU/APL led DART (Double Asteroid Redirect Mission) spacecraft to rendezvous with binary near-Earth asteroid 65803 Didymus (1996 G2). DART would impact the smaller asteroid, 'Didymoon' while AIM would characterize the impact and the larger Didymus asteroid. With these missions in mind, a suite of experiments have been conducted at the Experimental Impact Laboratory (EIL) at NASA Johnson Space Center to investigate the effects that collisions may have on comets and asteroids. With the new capability of the vertical gun to cool targets in the chamber through the use of a cold jacket fed by liquid nitrogen, the effects of target temperature have been the focus of recent studies. Mg-rich forsterite and enstatite (orthopyroxene), diopside (monoclinic pyroxene) and magnesite (Mg-rich carbonate) were impacted. Target temperatures ranged from 25 deg to -100 deg, monitored by connecting thermocouples to the target container. Impacted targets were analyzed with a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM). Here we present the evidence for impact-induced shock in the minerals through both spectra and TEM imaging and compare with unshocked samples.

Lederer, Susan M.↗

NASA NTRS1989

Significant variation from a 1/R-squared potential in the cumulative flux determined from the Giotto Comet Halley Dust Impact Experiment

The Dust Impact Detection System (DIDSY) aboard the Giotto spacecraft provided the information on the dust flux, mass spectrum, and cumulative mass distribution flux in the coma of Comet Halley. Analysis of discrete pulse height data of cometary particles for the mass range of particles between 4.0 x 10 to the -10th g and 6.0 x 10 to the -6th g registered by the Giotto DIDSY detectors 2, 3, and 4 has been completed, and a cumulative flux has been determined for this size range of particles. Inside the cometopause, anomalous peaks have been identified as deviation from a 1/R-squared curve in both pre- and postencounter measurements.

Alexander, W. M.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Survivability of Meteorite Projectiles - Results from Impact Experiments

An experimental impact study investigating the fragmentation of various projectiles, including meteorite, at speeds up to 1.8 km/s. The results have implications for the survivability of meteorites impacting planetary and asteroidal surfaces. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Bland, P. A.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Impact Experiments into Granular Targets Containing Solitary Blocks of Varying Strength and Size

Crater scaling relationships provide a means to correlate dimensions of laboratory-scale impact experiments to naturally formed craters at planetary scales. For relatively larger impact events, where gravity is the dominant arresting force against crater growth, these scaling relations are comparatively simple. For smaller craters, however, the target properties have increasing influence over the cratering process. Further complexities are easily envisaged when considering realistic surfaces that contain small-scale heterogeneities in cohesive strength, density, porosity, friction, as these properties will each have unequal effects on the resultant crater morphometry. Even when produced under controlled laboratory conditions, understanding (and controlling) the entire relevant parameter space is daunting, and deconvolution of the relevant contributors can be complicated even in the best-case scenario. To this end, we have begun an extensive series of impact experiments that will provide a nascent framework that will aid in the interpretation of craters observed on complex natural surfaces throughout the solar system. To start with the simplest configuration, experiments were performed with cylindrical PVC buckets that were filled with quartz sand and contained a single cubic block of synthetic sandstone. The blocks varied in size (14-33 mm) and unconfined compressive strength (0.5-7.4 MPa) and were placed in/on the sand along the trajectory of the incoming impactor and buried to different depths. All experiments were conducted using the vertical gun located in the Experimental Impact Lab at NASA Johnson Space Center with alumina projectiles that were accelerated to ~1.53 km s^-1 under a vacuum of 1 torr. After the impact, target containers were removed from the chamber are morphometric data were extracted by using a Peel 2 3D-scanner in combination with the open-source software, CloudCompare. Initial results show that block strength is a secondary effect on crater diameter and depth, but when at least one edge of the block is exposed and the surface (partial burial) the strength will dictate the number of surviving block fragments around the crater, as well as how much disrupted block material is retained within the crater walls.

Christopher J. Cline II↗

NASA NTRS2012

DebriSat - A Planned Laboratory-Based Satellite Impact Experiment for Breakup Fragment Characterization

DebriSat is a planned laboratory ]based satellite hypervelocity impact experiment. The goal of the project is to characterize the orbital debris that would be generated by a hypervelocity collision involving a modern satellite in low Earth orbit (LEO). The DebriSat project will update and expand upon the information obtained in the 1992 Satellite Orbital Debris Characterization Impact Test (SOCIT), which characterized the breakup of a 1960 's US Navy Transit satellite. There are three phases to this project: the design and fabrication of an engineering model representing a modern, 50-cm/50-kg class LEO satellite known as DebriSat; conduction of a laboratory-based hypervelocity impact to catastrophically break up the satellite; and characterization of the properties of breakup fragments down to 2 mm in size. The data obtained, including fragment size, area ]to ]mass ratio, density, shape, material composition, optical properties, and radar cross ]section distributions, will be used to supplement the DoD fs and NASA fs satellite breakup models to better describe the breakup outcome of a modern satellite. Updated breakup models will improve mission planning, environmental models, and event response. The DebriSat project is sponsored by the Air Force fs Space and Missile Systems Center and the NASA Orbital Debris Program Office. The design and fabrication of DebriSat is led by University of Florida with subject matter experts f support from The Aerospace Corporation. The major milestones of the project include the complete fabrication of DebriSat by September 2013, the hypervelocity impact of DebriSat at the Air Force fs Arnold Engineering Development Complex in early 2014, and fragment characterization and data analyses in late 2014.

Liou, J.-C.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Using Controlled Impact Experiments to Understand the Effects of Cohesive Blocks on the Cratering Process

When considering large-scale impact events that occur in the gravity-regime, smallscale target heterogeneities (on order of the projectile diameter) are anticipated to have a minimal effect on the cratering process and are therefore not considered in scaling relations [1-3]. Such heterogeneities and other details of the target's strength and structure, however, become increasingly influential as the magnitude of the impact decreases [4]. At the scale of craters forming mostly in regolith on the Moon (< a few meters), for example, target properties such as cohesive strength, density, porosity, and friction have more leverage than gravity to influence the resultant crater dimensions [5]. Further complications beyond just target properties can manifest in many forms, such as subsurface layers [6]; the presence of random, competent blocks [7]; buried lenses of impact melt; and/or pockets of regolith compacted or indurated to varying degrees by previous impacts. Summing the total effect of target properties and any additional heterogeneities for integration into scaling relations is not straightforward, as each individual parameter will have unequal, and so far, unquantified, effects on the final crater. Even when craters are produced under a best-case scenario of controlled laboratory conditions, understanding the entire relevant parameter space can be a formidable task, and deconvolution of all the contributing factors can be a complex undertaking. To begin the process of quantifying such effects, we are conducting an extensive series of impact experiments to build a framework for the interpretation of craters observed on the characteristically complex surfaces throughout the solar system. Here we present the first, and simplest, configuration to be examined in this multi-year experimental campaign: one in which solitary, cohesive blocks are placed in the path of the projectile’s trajectory at different burial depths in granular, sand targets. Among the variables to be investigated in this configuration are the influence of block size, compressive strength, and burial depth.

impact crater↗

NASA NTRS1991

Large craters on the meteoroid and space debris impact experiment

The distribution around the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) of 532 large craters in the Al plates from the Meteoroid and Space Debris Impact Experiment (S0001) is discussed along with 74 additional large craters in Al plates donated to the Meteoroid and Debris Special Investigation Group by other LDEF experimenters. The craters are 0.5 mm in diameter and larger. Crater shape is discussed. The number of craters and their distribution around the spacecraft are compared with values predicted with models of the meteoroid environment and the manmade orbital debris environment.

Humes, Donald H.↗

NASA NTRS2020

Crater Morphometry and Scaling in Coarse, Rubble-Like Targets: Insights from Impact Experiments

Spacecraft images reveal that the asteroids Itokawa, Ryugu, and Bennu are covered with coarse, boulder-rich material [1–3]. Impactors that collide with these bodies encounter a target with extreme physical heterogeneity. Other bodies can also possess significant physical heterogeneity (e.g., megaregolith, layering, etc.). Such heterogeneities establish free surfaces and impedance contrasts that can affect shock propagation and attenuation. Therefore, such heterogeneities may also affect crater formation and excavation [4], melt generation [5–7] and crater scaling [4]. As described by [8,9], the extent to which target heterogeneity affects crater formation likely depends on how the length scale, d, of the heterogeneity (e.g., boulder size on a rubble-pile asteroid) compares to the width of the shock, w, generated by impact. Here we further test this hypothesis using impact experiments across a broad range of impact velocities and target grain sizes to systematically vary the ratio between the width of the shock and the diameter of target grains.

Daly, R. T.↗

NASA NTRS2014

New Laboratory-Based Satellite Impact Experiments for Breakup Fragment Characterization

A consortium consisting of the NASA Orbital Debris Program Office, U.S. Air Force's Space and Missile Systems Center, the Aerospace Corporation, and University of Florida is planning a series of hypervelocity impact experiments on mockup targets at the U.S. Air Force's Arnold Engineering Development Complex (AEDC) in early 2014. The target for the first experiment resembles a rocket upper stage whereas the target for the second experiment represents a typical 60‐cm/50‐kg class payload that incorporates modern spacecraft materials and components as well as exterior wrap of multi‐layer insulation and three solar panels. The projectile is designed with the maximum mass that AEDC's Range G two‐stage light gas gun can accelerate to an impact speed of 7 km/sec. The impact energy is expected to be close to 15 MJ to ensure catastrophic destruction of the target after the impact. Low density foam panels are installed inside the target chamber to slow down and soft‐catch the fragments for post‐impact processing. Diagnostic instruments, such as x‐ray and high speed optical cameras, will also be used to record the breakup process. The main goal of this "DebriSat" project is to characterize the physical properties, including size, mass, shape, and density distributions, of orbital debris that would be generated by a hypervelocity collision involving an upper stage or a modern satellite in the low Earth orbit environment. In addition, representative fragments will be selected for laboratory optical and radar measurements to allow for better interpretation of data obtained by telescope and radar observations. This paper will provide a preliminary report of the impact results and the plans to process, measure, and analyze the fragments.

Liou, J.-C.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Low-gravity impact experiments: Progress toward a facility definition

Innumerable efforts were made to understand the cratering process and its ramifications in terms of planetary observations, during which the role of gravity has often come into question. Well known facilities and experiments both were devoted in many cases to unraveling the contribution of gravitational acceleration to cratering mechanisms. Included among these are the explosion experiments in low gravity aircraft, the drop platform experiments, and the high gravity centrifuge experiments. Considerable insight into the effects of gravity was gained. Most investigations were confined to terrestrial laboratories. It is in this light that the Space Station is being examined as a vehicle with the potential to support otherwise impractical impact experiments. The results of studies performed by members of the planetary cratering community are summarized.

Cintala, M. J.↗

NASA NTRS2008

Outcome of Recent Satellite Impact Experiments

This paper summarizes three satellite impact tests completed in early 2007 through collaboration between Kyushu University and the NASA Orbital Debris Program Office. The previous experiments completed in late 2005 aimed to compare low- and hyper-velocity impacts on identical target satellites, whereas the new tests used larger satellites as targets and aimed to investigate the effects of impact directions. Three identical micro satellites equipped with fully-functional electronic devices were prepared as targets. Their dimensions were 20 cm by 20 cm by 20 cm, and the mass of each was approximately 1.3 kilograms. Aluminum alloy solid spheres, with diameters of 3 cm and masses of 39 grams were prepared as projectiles. The impact velocity was approximately 1.7 km/s. The impact tests were carried out at the two-stage light gas gun facility at the Kyushu Institute of Technology. All three target satellites were completely fragmented, but there were noticeable differences among the three sets of fragments due to the different impact directions. More than 1000 fragments from each test were collected, measured, photographed, and documented with material descriptions. The analysis of the fragments is currently in progress. Preliminary results of the new data and comparisons with previous data will be included in the paper.

Hanada, Toshiya↗

NASA NTRS1987

Low-gravity impact experiments: Progress toward a facility definition

Innumerable efforts were made to understand the cratering process and its ramifications in terms of planetary observations, during which the experiments both were devoted in many cases to unraveling the contribution of gravitational acceleration to cratering mechanisms. Included among these are the explosion experiments in low-gravity aircraft, the drop-platform experiments, and the high-g centrifuge experiments. Considerable insight into the effects of gravity, among other factors, was gained. Even so, other avenues of investigation were out of reach to workers confined to the terrestrial laboratory. It is in this light that the Space Station is being examined as a vehicle with the potential to support otherwise impractical impact experiments. The results of studies performed by members of the planetary cratering community are summarized; their names and affiliations are listed.

Cintala, Mark J.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

An Approach to Shape Parameterization Using Laboratory Hypervelocity Impact Experiments

NASA’s Orbital Debris Program Office relies on laboratory-based impact tests to supplement the measurement data of on-orbit events that defines the orbital debris environment. These experiments provide information that is essential to interpreting the radar and optical measurements of orbital fragmentation events into useful metrics, such as characteristic size of the debris, and to providing a better understanding of the distributions of fragment populations in terms of their masses, material constituents, fragment densities, cross-sectional areas, area-to-mass ratios, shapes, etc. The Satellite Orbital Debris Characterization Impact Test (SOCIT) was a notable laboratory impact experiment conducted in 1992 using a surplus U.S. Navy Transit navigation satellite of the 1960s. The data from this ground-based experiment were combined with on-orbit measurements to develop the NASA Standard Satellite Breakup Model (SSBM). To account for advancements in satellite design and construction since, a new impact test series – DebriSat – was conducted in 2014. This test utilized a high-fidelity mock-up spacecraft that better represents the materials and construction techniques used to design and manufacture modern spacecraft. Together, these tests offer valuable data to model an orbital debris environment composed of legacy and modern spacecraft. This paper presents an overview of the two laboratory impact tests, comparing their fragment parameter distributions with each other and with relevant distributions from the NASA SSBM. The categorization and descriptions of fragment shapes are of significant interest for future work, yet there are marked differences in the definitions of shape categories between each dataset. The categorizations of constituent materials, and the measurement techniques employed to populate these two datasets, are also different. New rubrics simplify and equate the categorizations between datasets to aid comparative analyses and to facilitate the potential use of both datasets in tandem with future environmental debris models. A preferred approach to classifying shape across disparate datasets uses the characteristic-length dimensions, and a simplified shape classification based on physical, solid-body dimensions, to mathematically construct an encapsulating right-circular cylinder that represents the fragment. The ratio of cylinder length-to-diameter (L:D) then provides a single continuum value for shape that is strongly correlated with its designated shape and size. This metric can then be used to further assess the distribution of shape with populations of other fragment characteristics within these datasets. The shape parameterization using the L:D ratios of right-circular cylinders is discussed.

John H. Seago↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

An Approach to Shape Parameterization Using Laboratory Hypervelocity Impact Experiments

John H Seago↗