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The thickness noise theory is discussed. Two full-scale rotors were tested in a wind tunnel with several tips involving changes in chord, thickness, and sweep. Impulsive noise data reduction procedures used are described. The calculated and measured impulsive noise peak pressures as a function of advancing tip Mach number are compared, showing good correlation for all rotors considered.
This paper outlines some recent advances in the application of the Euler and Navier-Stokes computational fluid dynamics methods to analyze nonlinear problems of helicopter aerodynamics and acoustics. A complete flowfield simulation of helicopters is currently not feasible with these methods. However, the use of the state-of-the-art numerical algorithms in conjunction with powerful supercomputers, like the Cray-2, have enabled notable progress to be made in modeling several individual components of this complex flow in hover and forward flight.
Calculated dynamic characteristics of a representative soft-inplane hingeless rotor helicopter are presented. The flight dynamics as a function of speed and gross weight are given. The requirements for accurate analytical modelling of this helicopter are established. The influence of the horizontal tail size, the rotor precone, the blade sweep, and the blade center of gravity/aerodynamic center offset on the calculated flight dynamics and aeroelastic stability are examined. The calculations show no evidence of an air resonance stability problem with this aircraft.
The flight dynamics of a hovering helicopter with a circulation-controlled rotor are analyzed. The influence of the rotor blowing coefficient on the calculated eigenvalues of the helicopter motion is examined for a range of values of the rotor lift and the blade flap frequency. The control characteristics of a helicopter with a circulation-controlled rotor are discussed. The principal effect of the blowing is a reduction in the rotor speed stability derivative. Above a critical level of blowing coefficient, which depends on the flap frequency and rotor lift, negative speed stability is produced and the dynamic characteristics of the helicopter are radically altered. The handling qualities of a helicopter with negative speed stability are probably unacceptable without a stability augmentation system.
The influence of the rotor blowing coefficient on the calculated roots of the longitudinal and lateral motion was examined for a range of values of the rotor lift and the blade flap frequency. The control characteristics of a helicopter with a circulation controlled rotor are discussed. The principal effect of the blowing is a reduction in the rotor speed stability derivative. Above a critical level of blowing coefficient, which depends on the flap frequency and rotor lift, negative speed stability is produced and the dynamic characteristics of the helicopter are radically altered.
Interactions of a modern rotor blade with concentrated tip vortices from the previous blades can have a significant influence on the airloads and the aeroacoustics of a helicopter. A better understanding of the blade/vortex interaction process and a method of analyzing its flow field would provide valuable help in the design of helicopters. The work discussed herein represents an initial effort in applying a 3-D, time-dependent Navier-Stokes simulation to the blade vortex interaction problem. The numerical approach is the Linearized Block Implicit (LBI) technique. In this initial effort, consideration is given to the interaction of a wing of idealized geometry and a vortex whose axis is aligned at an arbitrary angle to the wing. The calculations are made for laminar, subsonic flow, and show the time dependent pressure distribution and flow fields resulting from the interaction.
In this paper, we have applied a new aerodynamic tool to the study of helicopter airfoil characteristics. We have shown that the computed airloads reproduce completely the experimental behavior of representative airfoils across the transonic regime. In addition, the computational details of the flow fields, the surface pressure distributions, and the viscous-layer characteristics enable us to trace the evolution of the physical changes that occur as m infinity or Re increases. Descriptions of the complicated development of shock waves, shock-induced separation supplement the information that has been obtained heretofore in wind tunnels. In validating our calculations and assessing the accuracy of the results, including extensive grid-refinement studies and comparisons with data from numerous wind tunnels, we have defined the capabilities and limitations of the code ARC2D more precisely. This important aspect of the investigations can complement wind-tunnel tests, by providing flow-field details that are difficult to measure and by extending the range of low parameters beyond the capabilities of existing wind tunnels. The code has now progressed from a purely research stage to almost a production stage, where it can be run by specialists in the helicopter industry.
Helicopter rotor blade airload by applying lifting surface solution
Calculated and measured values of helicopter rotor flapping angles in forward flight are compared for a model rotor in a wind tunnel and an autogiro in gliding flight. The lateral flapping angles can be accurately predicted when a calculation of the nonuniform wake-induced velocity is used. At low advance ratios, it is also necessary to use a free wake geometry calculation. For the cases considered, the tip vortices in the rotor wake remain very close to the tip-path plane, so the calculated values of the flapping motion are sensitive to the fine details of the wake structure, specifically the viscous core radius of the tip vortices.
A combined Eulerian/Lagrangian approach to calculating helicopter rotor flows with concentrated vortices is described. The method computes a general evolving vorticity distribution without any significant numerical diffusion. Concentrated vortices can be accurately propagated over long distances on relatively coarse grids with cores only several grid cells wide. The method is demonstrated for a blade/vortex impingement case in 2D and 3D where a vortex is cut by a rotor blade, and the results are compared to previous 2D calculations involving a fifth-order Navier-Stokes solver on a finer grid.
This work couples a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code and rotorcraft computational structural dynamics (CSD) code to calculate helicopter rotor airloads across a range of flight conditions. An iterative loose (weak) coupling methodology is used to couple the CFD and CSD codes on a per revolution, periodic basis. The CFD uses a high fidelity, Navier-Stokes, overset grid methodology with first principles-based wake capturing. Modifications are made to the CFD code for aeroelastic analysis. For a UH-60A Blackhawk helicopter, four challenging level flight conditions are computed: 1) low speed (u = 0.15) with blade-vortex interaction, 2) high speed (u = 0.37) with advancing blade negative lift, 3) high thrust with dynamic stall (u = 0.24), and 4) hover. Results are compared with UH-60A Airloads Program fight test data. Most importantly, for all cases the loose coupling methodology is shown to be stable, convergent, and robust with full coupling of normal force, pitching moment, and chord force. In comparison with flight test data, normal force and pitching moment magnitudes are in good agreement. For the high speed and dynamic stall cases a phase lag in comparison with the data is seen, nonetheless, the shapes of the curves are very good. Overall, the results are noteworthy improvement over lifting line aerodynamics used in rotorcraft comprehensive codes.
New method for calculating flow of air through and around helicopter rotor incorporated into General Rotorcraft Aeromechanical Stability Program (GRASP) (computer program for aeroelastic analysis). Flow about helicopter rotor represented by axisymmetric flow field in cylindrical region with actuator disk as source of flow.
The polar parabolic equation (POPE) method solves for the diffraction of sound by a curved surface including a realistic sound speed profile. POPE is outlined briefly to describe diffraction which propagates the field over a hill. Experimental data are compared with POPE predictions using the measured sound speed profile and ground impedance. Two trial cases are considered for the comparisons: the helicopter located at the base of the hill and far away from the base of the hill, respectively. The physical mechanisms for sound propagation over a hill are examined with and of POPE calculations and experimental data. The shedding of rays from the hillside gives an interference effect with a wave along the flat surface beyond the base of a hill.
International and United States Federal regulations evaluate helicopter acoustic emissions for certification purposes as well as community noise impact assessments. The Sound Exposure Level (SEL) is a commonly used metric that represents the loudness of a single event, with a penalty for duration. For example, a flyover lasting ten seconds can have the same SEL as a five-second duration flyover that is 3 dB higher in peak level. Ten helicopters spanning the light and medium weight classes were modeled using flight test data. They were then virtually flown using the Advanced Acoustic Model at multiple speeds and altitudes. SEL and A-weighted SEL (SELA) were calculated at ground-based observer locations for each condition. Scaling laws with altitude are determined, and cruising airspeeds which result in the minimum SEL are found. Implications for future land-use planning will be discussed, and the relationships are reduced to general or vehicle-specific operational guidance for pilots.
General equations derived for numerical simulations of motions of multiple-lift, slung-load systems consisting of two or more lifting helicopters and loads slung from them by various combinations of spreader bars, cables, nets, and attaching hardware. Equations readily programmable for efficient computation of motions and lend themselves well to analysis and design of control strategies for stabilization and coordination.
Blade section normal force and pitching moment were investigated for six rotors operating at transition and high speeds: H-34 in flight and wind tunnel, SA 330 (research Puma), SA 349/2, UH-60A full-scale and BO-105 model (HART-I). The measured data from flight and wind tunnel tests were compared with calculations obtained using the comprehensive analysis CAMRAD II. The calculations were made using two free wake models: rolled-up and multiple-trailer with consolidation models. At transition speed, there is fair to good agreement for the blade section normal force between the test data and analysis for the H-34, research Puma, and SA 349/2 with the rolled-up wake. The calculated airloads differ significantly from the measurements for the UH-60A and BO-105. Better correlation is obtained for the UH-60A and BO-105 by using the multiple-trailer with consolidation wake model. In the high speed condition, the analysis shows generally good agreement with the research Puma flight data in both magnitude and phase. However, poor agreement is obtained for the other rotors examined. The analysis shows that the aerodynamic tip design (chord length and quarter chord location) of the Puma has an important influence on the phase correlation.
A program is described whose purpose was to develop the measurement and data processing techniques necessary to accurately compute the local rotor blade circulation at any azimuth and radius in a wind tunnel environment at representative forward speeds. With these techniques, further tests using a complex rotor system with local surface pressure measurements should help to determine the accuracy of the technique for general applications to rotor blade span-load measurement programs in wind tunnel forward flight conditions. Preliminary calculations are reported.
Two alternative approaches area developed to calculate blade-vortex interaction airloads on helicopter rotors, second-order lifting-line theory and a lifting-surface theory correction. The common approach of using a larger vortex core radius to account for lifting-surface effects is quantified. The second-order lifting-line theory also improves the modeling of low aspect-ratio blades yawed flow, and swept tips. Calculated results are compared with wind-tunnel measurements of lateral flapping, and with flight test measurements of blade section lift on SA349/2 and H-34 helicopter rotors. The tip vortex core radius required for good correlation with the flight test data is about a 20-percent chord, which is within the range of measured viscous core sizes for helicopter rotors.