A theoretical study of the gamma-ray scattering technique for measuring atmospheric density Final report
Theoretical modeling study of gamma ray scattering technique for measuring atmospheric density
GAMMA RADIATION↗
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Early photometric and spectroscopic observations of the extraordinarily bright INTEGRAL-detected GRB 221009A
Context. GRB 221009A, initially detected as an X-ray transient by Swift, was later revealed to have triggered the Fermi satellite about an hour earlier, marking it as a post-peak observation of the event’s emission. This GRB distinguished itself as the brightest ever recorded, presenting an unparalleled opportunity to probe the complexities of GRB physics. The unprecedented brightness, however, challenged observation efforts, as it led to the saturation of several high-energy instruments.Aims. Our study seeks to investigate the nature of the INTEGRAL-detected GRB 221009A and elucidate the environmental conditions conducive to these exceptionally powerful bursts. Moreover, we aim to understand the fundamental physics illuminated by the detection of teraelectronvolt (TeV) photons emitted by GRB 221009A.Methods. We conducted detailed analyses of early photometric and spectroscopic observations that span from the Fermi trigger through to the initial days following the prompt emission phase in order to characterize GRB 221009A’s afterglow, and we complemented these analyses with a comparative study.Results. Our findings from analyzing INTEGRAL data confirm GRB 221009A as the most energetic event observed to date. Early optical observations during the prompt phase negate the presence of bright optical emissions with internal or external shock origins. Spectroscopic analyses enabled us to measure GRB 221009A’s distance and line-of-sight properties. The afterglow’s temporal and spectral analysis suggests prolonged activity of the central engine and a transition in the circumburst medium’s density. Finally, we discuss the implications for fundamental physics of detecting photons as energetic as 18 TeV from GRB 221009A.Conclusions. Early optical observations have proven invaluable for distinguishing between the potential origins of optical emissions in GRB 221009A, underscoring their utility in GRB physics studies. However, the rarity of such data underscores the need for dedicated telescopes capable of synchronous multiwavelength observations. Additionally, our analysis suggests that the host galaxies of TeV GRBs share commonalities with those of long and short GRBs. Expanding the sample of TeV GRBs could further solidify these findings.Key words: techniques: photometric / techniques: spectroscopic / gamma-ray burst: general / gamma-ray burst: individual: GRB 221009A
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
Low power fast pulse circuit techniques in the mit gamma-ray telescope.
Gamma ray telescope design and operation including low power fast pulse transistor circuit techniques
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT↗
Quantum imaging with positronium-decay-emitted gamma rays
The use of entangled gamma rays from positronium decay for quantum-enhanced imaging of dense materials is demonstrated. Quantum ghost images, where only one of the entangled 511-keV photons interacts with the object, are obtained for tantalum samples of varying density using a 210-ps time-resolution dual detector system and a Na-22 positron source. An analysis comparing both classical and quantum imaging modalities is employed to isolate true 511-keV events from background noise. Image quality is quantitatively assessed using transmission ratios and the Michelson contrast. Quantum-correlated images are found to exhibit superior (up to approximately 1.7x, from 0.49 to 0.83 in the thickest sample measured) contrast compared to classical methods and align well with theoretical expectations. These results suggest that quantum ghost imaging with positronium-based entangled gamma rays could significantly enhance noninvasive imaging of high-density objects, with potential applications in areas such as cargo inspection and security screening.
36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
Void-fraction measurements in cavitating mercury.
Gamma-ray densitometer technique for precise measurement of local or mean density in axially symmetric two phase flow with attention to cavitating mercury in venturi
TWO-PHASE FLOW↗
Photonuclear cross sections for 197 Au: An update on the gold standard
Cross sections for the 197 Au(γ, n) reaction are broadly used in nuclear physics as a standard for normalizing photonuclear reaction cross-section data at photon beam energies above approximately 8 MeV. In this paper, we report cross-section measurements for the 197 Au(γ, n) 196 Au g+m1 reaction at beam energies from 13 to 31 MeV. Our measurements provide the first cross-section data for this reaction at beam energies above 20 MeV, enabling the use of this reaction as a cross-section standard up to 30 MeV. Also, this work provides first cross-section measurements for the 197 Au(γ, n) 196 Au m2 reaction. In addition, we measured cross-section data for the 197 Au(γ, 3n) 194 Au reaction, which can be used as a cross-section standard above about 25 MeV. These measurements were performed using a new target activation method that is based on the angle-energy correlation of the laser Compton- scattered photon beams at the High Intensity Gamma-ray Source (HIγS). The technique enables measuring photonuclear reaction cross-sections at several discrete beam energies concurrently via a single irradiation on a stack of different targets. Measurements were carried out by irradiating a stack of concentric-ring targets consisting of Au, TiO 2 , Zn, Os, and Au (in order of the γ-ray beam direction). Our data for the 197 Au(γ,n) 196 Au g+m1 reaction in the energy range of 13 to 20 MeV are in good agreement with existing ones measured using monoenergetic γ-ray beams, but differ from data acquired using a bremsstrahlung γ-ray beam. Also, above 18 MeV, our data for the 197 Au(γ,n) 196 Au g+m1 and 197 Au(γ,n) 196 Au m2 reactions differ significantly from the most recent TENDL and JENDL evaluations, suggesting a need to update these data libraries. Furthermore, the TENDL evaluation and existing data are consistent with our data for the 197 Au(γ,3n) reaction, but differ significantly from the JENDL evaluation above 26 MeV.
190 ≤ A ≤ 219↗
Plane isotropic buildup factors for bremsstrahlung calculations
Gamma-ray isotropic dose, energy flux and energy current buildup factors for finite slabs calculated by Monte Carlo techniques
MONTE CARLO METHOD↗
New NDA Methods for Thorium Fuel Cycle Safeguards (Final Report)
This project developed portable Neutron Resonance Transmission Analysis (pNRTA) as a new non-destructive assay (NDA) method for thorium fuel cycles safeguards and other applications where multiple isotopes must be measured when present together. pNRTA leverages epithermal neutron resonances to assay multiple safeguards-relevant isotopes (e.g., 233 U and 235 U) when they are present together in a sample. Existing techniques are challenged by this task, driving the need for new active interrogation methods. With selected detectors, pNRTA works in high gamma-ray backgrounds from fission and activation products and 232 U progeny expected in thorium fuel cycle samples. This project leveraged a pNRTA system developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The system uses a commercially available deuterium-tritium (DT) neutron generator at short standoff (2 m). Key achievements in this project included: first-of-a-kind pNRTA quantitative measurements of 233 U oxide samples, an assessment of neutron detector technologies suitable for pNRTA in high gamma-ray background environments, experimentally demonstrating quantitative assay of samples containing 233 U and 235 U, and modeling studies showing the applicability of pNRTA to a wide range of material forms. Further, a custom algorithm was developed at MIT, which provided mean bias of 9% and relative standard deviation of 36% in assaying 233 U, 235 U, 238 U, and 232 Th content in eight measured samples. These outcomes form a solid technical basis for pNRTA as a new promising capability for international safeguards verification that is portable, non-destructive, quantitative, and isotopic specific.
11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
Deviations from the Porter-Thomas Distribution due to Nonstatistical 𝛾 Decay below the 150 Nd Neutron Separation Threshold
We introduce a new method for the study of fluctuations of partial transition widths based on nuclear resonance fluorescence experiments with quasimonochromatic linearly polarized photon beams below particle separation thresholds. It is based on the average branching of decays of 𝐽=1 states of an even-even nucleus to the 2$^{+}_{1}$ state in comparison to the ground state. Between 5 and 7 MeV, a constant average branching ratio for 𝛾 decays from 1 − states of 0.490(16) is observed for the nuclide 150 Nd. Assuming 𝜒 2 -distributed partial transition widths, this average branching ratio is related to a degree of freedom of 𝜈 = 1.93(12), rejecting the validity of the Porter-Thomas distribution, requiring 𝜈 = 1. The observed deviation can be explained by nonstatistical effects in the 𝛾-decay behavior with contributions in the range of 9.4(10)% up to 94(10)%.
150 ≤ A ≤ 189↗
Compact in-vacuum gamma-ray spectrometer for high-repetition rate PW-class laser–matter interaction
With the advent of high repetition rate laser facilities, novel diagnostic tools compatible with these advanced specifications are required. This paper presents the design of an active gamma-ray spectrometer intended for these high repetition rate experiments, with particular emphasis on functionality within a PW level laser-plasma interaction chamber’s extreme conditions. The spectrometer uses stacked scintillators to accommodate a broad range of gamma-ray energies, demonstrating its adaptability for various experimental setups. In addition, it has been engineered to maintain compactness, electromagnetic pulse resistance, and ISO-5 cleanliness requirements while ensuring high sensitivity. The spectrometer has been tested in real conditions inside the PW-class level interaction chamber at the BELLA center, LBNL. The paper further details the calibration process, which utilizes a 60 Co radioactive source, and describes the unfolding technique implemented through a stochastic minimization method.
47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
The Measurement of Radiation Exposure of Astronauts by Radiochemical Techniques
The principal gamma-ray-omitting radioisotopes produced in the body of astronauts by cosmic-ray bombardment which have half-lives long enough to be useful for radiation dose evaluation are Be-7, Na-22, and Na-24. The sodium isotopes were measured in the preflight and postflight urine and feces, and those feces specimens collected during the manned Apollo missions, by analysis of the urine salts and the raw feces in large crystal multidimensional gamma-ray spectrometers. The Be-7 was chemically separated, and its concentration measured in an all Na(T1), anticoincidence shielded, scintillation well crystal. The overall sensitivity of the experiment was reduced by almost all variables such as low concentrations of excreted cosmogenic radionuclides, high concentrations of injected radionuclides, low sample sizes, long delay periods before analysis, and uncertain excretion rates. The astronaut radiation dose in millirads, as determined by this technique, for the Apollo 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 missions was 330, 160, 315, 870 ? 550, 31, 110, and 250 respectively. In view of these limitations this technique would be best applied to cases of unusually high exposures, such as that encountered from solar flares.
R L Brodzinski↗
Evaluation of Compton suppression for enhancing trace element identification in neutron activation analysis of reference materials
Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying trace elements in materials. However, challenges such as high dead times, spectral interferences, and high Compton continuum often arise. This study employs a Compton suppression system (CSS) to enhance NAA sensitivity by reducing the Compton continuum, thereby improving the peak-to-Compton ratio. National Institute of Standards and Technology certified reference materials 1632d, 1633c, and Canadian National Research Council TORT-1 were irradiated in a thermal and epithermal neutron flux under various irradiation, decay and counting times and analyzed using high-resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy with and without Compton suppression. The reduction factor was calculated to evaluate the effectiveness of the CSS, demonstrating significant background reduction and improved detection limits for trace elements. Additional experiments with a 137Cs point source demonstrated the impact of detector-source geometry on system performance, showing a decrease in the reduction factor as the source was moved further from the NaI detector. An optimum distance between the source and HPGe detector was observed, yielding the highest peak-to-Compton ratio. The results highlight the CSS's ability to minimize spectral interference and enhance elemental identification.
46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
Migration of 60 Co, 133 Ba, 137 Cs, and 152 Eu from cementitious wasteforms in field lysimeter experiments
Safe and effective storage of radioactive waste is essential to protect environmental health. Due to the potential for accidental releases and the severity of the associated risks, it is imperative to further understand radionuclide transport should an accident occur. This work analyzed the vadose zone migration of radionuclides from cementitious wasteforms at the Savannah River Site after ten years. The observed radionuclides are prominent constituents of radioactive waste or analogs for other groups or series of radionuclides. Lysimeters were first analyzed in 2016 using a collimated high-purity germanium gamma-ray spectrometer to non-destructively measure the concentration of each radionuclide in the sediment column as a function of depth. Following these measurements, the lysimeters were redeployed in the field for another 4 years. All radionuclides in all lysimeters were observed to transport further during the redeployment period; however, the extent of migration varied with the material used for introduction. Except for 137 Cs, migration through the sediment control system increased with decreasing ionic potential (ionic charge/radius); migration order: 152 Eu< 137 Cs< 60 Co< 133 Ba. Overall, the cementitious wasteforms were observed to decrease radionuclide migration extent relative to the filter paper. In both cementitious wasteforms, the migration extent increased in the order 152 Eu< 133 Ba< 60 Co< 137 Cs. However, less migration was measured when the radionuclides were incorporated into a reducing grout wasteform. The novelty of this paper is the demonstration of a technique capable of creating non-destructive measurements over decade time scales. Ultimately, this work provides insight into the long-term migration of alkali, alkali earth, divalent transition metal, and trivalent actinide element isotopes.
12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
COnfirmation using Gamma-ray Non-Imaging Zero-knowledge ANti-mask Time-encoding (COGNIZANT) Final Summary Report
In potential future arms reduction treaties in which the numbers of nuclear warheads may approach small numbers, using delivery systems as a proxy for the warheads themselves may be insufficient. Therefore, a technical means of verifying the presence of a nuclear warhead may become necessary. Verifying that a declared item actually is a warhead is technically challenging within a verification regime: providing assurance to the monitoring party that a presented item is a warhead while protecting sensitive information about that warhead may be required. It is generally believed that strong assurance will require the confirmation of key attributes that may reveal closely-guarded critical design information. This provides high confidence to the monitoring party, but presents a risk of information loss to the host. A verification system must overcome this hurdle. Over the last several decades, systems have been developed that balance host and monitoring partner needs by using sensitive information to confirm treaty accountable items (TAI) as warheads while sequestering that information behind an information barrier (1). These are designed to meet the needs of the host but places the onus on the monitor to authenticate the hardware, firmware, and software. Authentication requires that the monitor confirm that all components of the system have not been modified and work as intended. In 2014, Glaser et al. proposed applying the concept of “zero knowledge protocols” (ZKP) from the field of cryptography to the problem of warhead verification (2). In mathematical cryptography, ZKP is accomplished by challenging one party to solve a problem that is only possible if that party possesses the information being authenticated. After repeated challenges, the party provides confidence that it possesses this information without revealing any details about the information itself. Systems have been in development based on this idea at both Princeton and MIT (2) (3) (4). The final measurement results produced by these systems can be viewed by both the host and the monitoring party without the worry of revealing sensitive information. However, in both of these physical implementations, there remains an information barrier within the system. The need for a digital information barrier to protect a measurement result is eliminated, but it has been replaced with the need to sequester physical components of the system, potentially obfuscating the measurement process itself. Both implementations physically insert information into the system that requires protection to prevent undesired disclosure of sensitive information: in the Princeton method, one must physically load the complement of the expected image of a true warhead into the system, and in the MIT technique, one loads a collection of spectator foils whose thicknesses physically encrypt a measured spectrum. This complicates authentication of the hardware and measurement process. The CONFIDANTE/COGNIZANT concept developed in this project do not load sensitive information into the system at any time, and could therefore open the possibility of allowing the inspector to not only view the final data but also the measurement as it is being performed and all associated equipment.
98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
Spectroscopy of the Hamburg Meteorite, Michigan H4
Spectroscopic studies of the Hamburg (Michigan H4) meteorite using visible–near-infrared (VNIR), mid-infrared (MIR), Raman, and Mössbauer data reproduce the results of more conventional laboratory measurements of petrology and geochemistry. This combination provides general information on the mineral modes of silicates, although spectroscopy was performed on different splits of this meteorite, and varying results may be explained by heterogeneity that is typical of ordinary chondrites. Raman also detects small features assigned to first-order D and G carbon bands, while Mössbauer data show the presence of Fe oxides and carbides. The electron microprobe (EMPA) composition of olivine in this meteorite is accurately measured to be Fo 81.3 , while MIR and Raman closely agree with Fo 80 and Fo 82 , respectively, and Mössbauer, at Fo 60 − Fo 70 , is in the ballpark. Similarly, P. R. Heck et al. report pyroxenes with compositions of Fs 16 Wo 1 , while Raman suggests a somewhat similar composition of Fs 28 Wo 0 . Both VNIR and MIR detect the presence of small amounts of feldspar, while EMPA identifies its composition as An 14 Ab 8 Or 5 . VNIR data were matched to spectral libraries of meteorite and asteroid data and shown to closely match other L and H meteorites. The best spectral matches to the Michigan H4 meteorite are to asteroid classes L/H/LL/URE, EH/EL/AUB, and CO/CV from M. D. Dyar et al.; objects in this group are intermediate in semimajor axis lengths for their orbits. The results highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each technique and show their collective strength when applied together to a single meteorite sample.
58 GEOSCIENCES↗
Detection of uranium-photofission neutrons with a 4 He scintillation detector
The use of photon active interrogation to detect special nuclear material has held significant theoretical promise, as the interrogating source particles, photons, are fundamentally different from one of the main signatures of special nuclear material: neutrons produced in nuclear fission. However, neutrons produced by photonuclear reactions in the accelerator target, collimator, and environment can obscure the fission neutron signal. These (γ, n) neutrons could be discriminated from fission neutrons by their energy spectrum, but common detectors sensitive to the neutron spectrum, like organic scintillators, are typically hampered by the intense photon background characteristic of photon-based active interrogation. In contrast, high-pressure 4 He-based scintillation detectors are well-suited to photon active interrogation, as they are similarly sensitive to fast neutrons and can measure their spectrum, but show little response to gamma rays. Here, in this work, a photon active interrogation system utilizing a 4 He scintillation detector and a 9 MeV linac-bremsstrahlung x-ray source was experimentally evaluated. The detector was shown to be capable of operating in intense gamma-ray environments and detecting photofission neutrons from 238 U when interrogated by this x-ray source. The photofission neutrons show clear spectral separation from (γ, n) neutrons produced in lead, a common shielding material.
46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
Extraction of neutron-capture cross sections on 92 Zr using the charge-exchange Oslo method
The 93 Nb (𝑡, 3 He ) reaction at 115 MeV/nucleon was studied to demonstrate that nuclear level densities and 𝛾-ray strength functions can be extracted from charge-exchange reactions at intermediate energies using the Oslo technique. The matrix of excitation energy in 93 Zr, reconstructed from the (𝑡, 3 He ) reaction, versus the energy of 𝛾 rays emitted by the excited 93 Zr nuclei, was obtained in an experiment with the S800 Spectrograph operated in coincidence with the GRETINA 𝛾 -ray detector. The extracted level density and 𝛾 -ray strength function obtained by applying the Oslo method to this matrix were used to estimate the 92 Zr(𝑛,𝛾) 93 Zr cross section by combining the new results with other experimental data and theoretical calculations for 𝐸1 and 𝑀1 strength functions at higher energies. Good agreement with direct measurements of the 92 Zr(𝑛,𝛾) 93 Zr cross section was found. The contribution from the upbend in the extracted 𝛾-ray strength function was important to achieve the consistency, as the neutron-capture cross section without this contribution is significantly below the direct measurements otherwise. Since charge-exchange reactions at intermediate energies have long been used for extracting Gamow-Teller strengths, the successful demonstration of the charge-exchange Oslo method enables experiments in which (𝑛,𝛾) cross sections and Gamow-Teller strengths can be measured simultaneously, which is of benefit for astrophysical studies.
90 ≤ A ≤ 149↗
GADRAS + Geant4 Simulated Gamma Spectra Dataset
This dataset contains GADRAS and Geant4 simulated gamma-ray energy spectra used in the papers "Sim-to-real supervised domain adaptation for radioisotope identification" (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2025.171159) and "Unsupervised domain adaptation for radioisotope identification in gamma spectroscopy" (https://arxiv.org/abs/2603.05719). Each spectrum contains a mixture of several different radioisotopes, and the goal of the analysis is to leverage domain adaptation techniques to use a model trained on source-domain spectra (GADRAS) to classify target-domain spectra (Geant4).
Lalor, Peter William [Pacific Northwest National L↗