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Biomass supply chain equipment for renewable fuels production: A review

The production of renewable fuels is a critical component of global strategies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Moreover, the collection of raw materials for its production can provide added benefits such as reduction of wildfire risk, additional income for farmers, and decreased disposal costs. Although there is substantial literature on design and modeling of supply chains, the authors were unable to find a single reference with the information needed for the selection and cost estimation of each type of equipment involved in the supply chain. Therefore, the goal of this research is to gather information necessary for the construction and utilization of models that might drive the identification of a feasible supply chain to produce renewable fuels at a commercial scale. The primary objectives are to 1) understand the supply chain of critical feedstocks for renewable fuels production; 2) identify the equipment commercially available for collection and adequation of feedstock; and 3) consolidate information regarding equipment cost, energy consumption, and efficiency, as well as feedstock storage and transportation systems. This paper provides a compilation for five feedstock types studied for sustainable aviation fuel production: 1) agricultural residues and grasses, 2) forest residues, 3) urban wood waste, 4) oilseeds, 5) fats, oils & greases. All the technologies involved from the field to the gate of the preprocessing or conversion unit were reviewed. The information on fats, oils & greases supply chains and equipment purposely designed for forest thinning and pruning was very limited.

: Feedstock, Collection and Adequation, Renewable ↗

Towards non-contact pollution monitoring in sewers with hyperspectral imaging

Monitoring water quality in sewers is challenging, particularly because state-of-the-art technologies require contact with the raw wastewater. The presence of fat, oil, grease, and solids makes automated grab sampling difficult and causes sensor fouling. To overcome these limitations, non-contact methods based on light reflectance, such as hyperspectral imaging (HSI), are gaining attention. However, HSI has never been tested for raw wastewater. To assess its accuracy for measuring pollution, we developed a laboratory setup and performed targeted experiments with a combination of raw and diluted wastewater, as well as synthetic turbidity stock solutions. We measured seven pollution variables: chemical oxygen demand, turbidity, dissolved organic compounds, ammonium, total nitrogen, phosphate, and sulphates. We used automated pixel selection and partial least squares regression to retrieve pollution information from the hyperspectral images. Our results, based on 144 samples, suggest that HSI can estimate pollution levels with a precision in the range of state-of-the-art absorbance spectrophotometric methods. Additionally, we found that the combination of pixel and wavelength selection, enabled by the hyperspectral data structure, significantly influences the performance of partial least square modelling. Overall, our findings indicate that HSI is a promising technology for non-contact monitoring of water quality in raw wastewater.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

Simulating competition in the US bioeconomy to produce hard‐to‐electrify transportation fuels using limited biomass resources

This study presents a novel bioeconomy optimization framework, BiOpt, designed to address critical questions regarding the strategic use of limited US biomass resources for biofuel production. By integrating detailed techno-economic analyses, life cycle assessments, and resource assessment data, BiOpt optimizes resource distributions across competing technologies to maximize economic performance and/or minimize greenhouse gas emissions. Using feedstock scenarios from the 2023 Billion Ton Study, the analysis explores optimal biomass allocations across sustainable aviation fuel, diesel, and marine biofuel conversion pathways given varying production targets and policy incentives. Results demonstrate distinct feedstock preferences and pathway utilizations when prioritizing economic returns vs. emissions reductions. For instance, fats, oils, and greases were highly favored in cost-optimized scenarios, while low-carbon feedstocks such as wet waste dominated greenhouse gas-minimized strategies. The findings underscore the pivotal role of policy incentives and technological advances in shaping biofuel supply chains and provide actionable insights for scaling sustainable biofuel production to decarbonize hard-to-electrify sectors. This framework offers a robust tool for policymakers and stakeholders to evaluate biofuel strategies that balance energy output, economic viability, and environmental impact.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

SAF: a promising approach to meet growing jet fuel demand

SAF provides a promising approach to aid the rising jet fuel demand from increased travel around the world and reduce the lifecycle emissions from the aviation sector. Although the feasibility of SAF pathways has been demonstrated through economic and environmental metrics quantification, the models used to quantify these variables have a high degree of variability in terms of accuracy and thereby reliability. To understand how to adopt and commercialize SAF, we need to harmonize these process models and assess metrics and technical limitations related to their production technologies. We find the production cost of SAF using hydro processed fatty acids and esters (HEFA), Fischer-Tropsch (FT), and alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) to be $\$$3-$\$$6/gallon gasoline equivalent (gge) and life cycle emissions to be lower than Jet A, except for ATJ using corn grain (≤25%). HEFA utilizing oil feedstocks has the lowest production cost (~$\$$2.9/gge) and highest jet yield (>150 gge/dry ton), while FT has the largest emission reduction (94%) compared to fossil jet. A unique contribution of this study is a comparative analysis of metrics related to SAF processes across technical, economic, and sustainability aspects. A cross-comparison of these metrics shows HEFA using fats, oils, and grease have the most favorable ratings, while HEFA using algae and ATJ using corn stover have more neutral and unfavorable ratings, respectively. These ratings can be improved by implementing the right combination of practical and technological advancements.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Evaluation of Performance Variables to Accelerate the Deployment of Sustainable Aviation Fuels at a Regional Scale

An increase in jet fuel consumption and its associated emissions across the world have led to the need for alternative technologies to produce sustainable aviation fuels (SAF). One option to produce SAFs is to utilize waste or biomass-based feedstocks that has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50% or more compared to conventional jet fuel. However, there is a lack of understanding of how the synergistic effects of key performance variables could hinder or help the deployment of aviation fuels on a regional scale. Here, we assess the implications of key variables-including type and quantity of waste/biomass feedstock availability near the airport, cost of SAF production, life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, policies, and fuel/infrastructure logistics-on the deployment of SAF at Chicago's O'Hare International Airport. We consider three ASTM International-approved SAF technologies (Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids, Fischer-Tropsch, and Alcohol to Jet) that can be blended up to 50% with petroleum-based jet fuel. Results from our analysis show that woody biomass-based Fischer-Tropsch technology has the lowest fuel production costs ($2.31-$2.81/gallon gasoline equivalent) of all pathways, and it reduces life cycle GHG emissions by 86% compared to conventional jet fuel despite the higher availability of crop residues compared to either woody biomass or fats, oils, and greases. Also, infrastructure is available at O'Hare International Airport to blend SAF with Jet A fuel through three terminals directly connected to the airport via pipelines. Our sensitivity analysis shows renewable fuel incentives and feedstock price to be key performance variables affecting the production cost and deployment of SAF.

alcohol-to-jet↗

Life Cycle Analysis of Renewable Natural Gas and Lactic Acid Production from Waste Feedstocks

Producing fuels and chemicals from waste is considered economically favorable, due to low feedstock cost, and environmentally favorable, due to avoided emissions from conventional waste management practices. In this study, we evaluate the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction benefits of renewable natural gas (RNG) and lactic acid (LA) production from four types of wet waste feedstocks (wastewater sludge, food waste, swine manure, and fats, oil, and grease [FOG]) via anaerobic digestion (AD) and LA fermentation, respectively. RNG can be used as an alternative to fossil natural gas, while LA from waste feedstocks can displace conventional LA production pathways (mainly from corn via fermentation). Providing comprehensive life cycle GHG emissions of the combinations of waste feedstocks and products through different routes helps identify the GHG hotspots and show where emissions savings come from. The results show that the carbon intensities (CIs) of waste-derived RNG and LA are much lower than those of their counterparts. We estimated the life cycle GHG emissions for RNG to be between -146 and 27 g carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e)/MJ, much lower than the CI of fossil fuels. Waste-derived LA pathways also show substantially lower CIs, ranging from -4.2 to -1.4 kgCO2e/kg LA, compared to the CIs of LA from corn and corn stover (1.2 and 0.3 kgCO2e/kg LA, respectively). We will also discuss that the low CIs of waste-derived products can come from low yields leading to high emission credits. Thus, life cycle analysis results presented per weight of treated waste can be used to support decisions about which waste feedstocks and products are to be used for sustainable waste valorization. In addition, we found that monetary emission reduction credits can play an important role in driving waste valorization.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

BioSiting Tool (BioSiting) v2

The BioSiting Tool provides a geospatial interface for analyzing bioeconomy resources and infrastructure across the continental U.S. The tool integrates empirical and modeled data from a broad range of sources. Bioeconomy resources mapped in the tool include agricultural residues, forest residues, municipal solid waste streams, food waste, manure, fats, oils and greases and potential yields of energy crops. Infrastructure mapped in the tool includes biorefineries, material recovery facilities, anaerobic digesters, wastewater treatment plants, combustion plants, district energy systems, crude oil pipelines, petroleum pipelines, natural gas pipelines, railways and freight terminals. Additional data layers include environmental justice indicators at the census tract level and carbon dioxide geologic storage potential. Users can select a location on the map, define a buffer radius in kilometers and generate an inventory of all bioecomony resources within the buffer zone. Data from the tool can be downloaded from individual buffer zones, or at the state or national level.

Huntington, Tyler↗

Rheology of a Wet Waste Feedstock

The current study provides rheological characterization of a representative HTL feedstock, Wet Waste Feedstock # 22 (WW22), as a function of HTL-prototypic temperature and shear rates. Feed WW22 is derived from a regionally representative blend of food, waste water sludges, and FOG (fats, oils, and greases). Rheological characterization of WW22 as a function of temperature provides, in part, key information for development and economic assessment of HTL wet waste slurry handling and heating operations, which may facilitate improved design rigor and optimization of HTL unit operations.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Organic Waste Resource Assessment for the Detroit Region

This study summarizes major sources of organic wastes in the Detroit region to (1) characterize target feedstock magnitudes and distribution in support of techno-economic analysis (TEA), and (2) guide the design of blended feedstock conversion experiments using hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL). Feedstocks considered in this review include municipal wastewater sludge solids (untreated) and scum; bulk municipal solid waste (MSW); the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OF-MSW); residential food waste, non-residential food waste including institutional, industrial, and commercial (IIC) sources; confined animal manures (i.e., lactating dairy, feedlot beef, and market swine); waste fats, oils and greases (FOG); agricultural residues; forest residues. The scope of the investigation was limited to existing modeled or publicly available reporting datasets. Bulk MSW data were only collected for context and to generate estimates of OF-MSW by waste type and should not be included in total organic waste estimates. Because the TEA analysis boundary was not defined prior to conducting the resource assessment, the data are summarized within six spatial contexts (boundaries), including (1) city of Detroit (census); (2) Great Lakes Water Authority (GLWA) service area; “Tri-county” urban area (census); “Metro” Detroit-Warren-Dearborn Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) (census); Detroit-Warren-Ann Arbor Combined Statistical Area (CSA) (census); and the Michigan Councils of Government (COG) Region-1. All of the spatial contexts are entirely within the State of Michigan, and some overlap one another. A broader context could be developed to include data from surrounding states or Canada.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Site-specific Design Case Study for Wet Waste Hydrothermal Liquefaction and Biocrude Upgrading to Hydrocarbon Fuels

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a thermal process that converts wet biomass to renewable hydrocarbon fuel blendstocks (i.e., renewable naphtha, renewable diesel, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)). It can utilize a wide range of pure and blended wet feedstocks, including sewage sludge from water resource recovery facilities (WRRF), food and agriculture wastes, algae, fats, oils and greases (FOG) and blends of dry and wet wastes/feedstocks. Historically, techno-economic analysis (TEA) and annual state of technology (SOT) assessments with standard economic assumptions used by the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) were conducted for the wet waste HTL pathway leveraging experimental data collected from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory’s (PNNL) continuous flow reactor systems. The objective of the SOT assessment has been to guide and track progress of BETO’s HTL research and development (R&D) toward reduced cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the pathway. However, gaps exist between BETO’s traditional SOT updates and the needs of key external stakeholders that – if addressed – will accelerate technology adoption. This Business Case Study aims to bridge this gap by providing an updated design, TEA, and LCA based on PNNL’s FY23 R&D with added analyses and information that provide enhanced relevance for stakeholders of the HTL technology. This includes specific siting, regional wet waste resource inventory and transportation cost analyses, fuel market information, sustainable fuel policy impacts, economic metrics of net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions analysis, and statistical analysis of cost and technical uncertainties of the HTL plant design. The study focuses on the “Detroit combined statistical area (CSA)” region for siting of a wet waste HTL plant adjacent to the Great Lakes Water Authority (GLWA) facility with guidance from industry participants. Regional resource and siting analyses were conducted to identify feedstock availability, scale, and cost, as well as a beneficial site location. TEA with detailed rigorous capital cost estimation for the specific site application was conducted to evaluate the key economic metrics of most value to industrial partners. These include total capital investment, operating costs, minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of the biocrude and fuel blendstock, and NPV and internal rate of return IRR with sustainable fuel credits. Life cycle analysis was conducted to evaluate the supply chain greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the wet waste HTL process as compared with petroleum derived diesel. This study is also informed by years of R&D and process de-risking learnings and was conducted with a basic engineering HTL plant design and costing that akin to a “first-of-a-kind” plant economics. This differs from our conventional “nth plant ” SOT assessments. Specifically, the HTL process model has been updated with more operationally reliable methods for feed heating and phase separations. Further, we have implemented additional spare equipment for redundancy, a more rigorous installed equipment cost estimation approach, and additional costs associated with feed formatting and delivery, building, piping and site development. An Excel-based cost sheet based on the basic engineering design is also released alongside the report that allows users to conduct customized TEA with their own feed composition and financial assumptions.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Supporting data for Site-specific Design Case Study for Wet Waste Hydrothermal Liquefaction and Biocrude Upgrading to Hydrocarbon Fuels

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a thermal process that converts wet biomass to renewable hydrocarbon fuel blendstocks (i.e., renewable naphtha, renewable diesel, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)). It can utilize a wide range of pure and blended wet feedstocks, including sewage sludge from water resource recovery facilities (WRRF), food and agriculture wastes, algae, fats, oils and greases (FOG) and blends of dry and wet wastes/feedstocks. Historically, techno-economic analysis (TEA) and annual state of technology (SOT) assessments with standard economic assumptions used by the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) were conducted for the wet waste HTL pathway leveraging experimental data collected from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory’s (PNNL) continuous flow reactor systems. The objective of the SOT assessment has been to guide and track progress of BETO’s HTL research and development (R&D) toward reduced cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the pathway. However, gaps exist between BETO’s traditional SOT updates and the needs of key external stakeholders that – if addressed – will accelerate technology adoption. This Business Case Study aims to bridge this gap by providing an updated design, TEA, and LCA based on PNNL’s FY23 R&D with added analyses and information that provide enhanced relevance for stakeholders of the HTL technology. This includes specific siting, regional wet waste resource inventory and transportation cost analyses, fuel market information, sustainable fuel policy impacts, economic metrics of net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions analysis, and statistical analysis of cost and technical uncertainties of the HTL plant design. The study focuses on the “Detroit combined statistical area (CSA)” region for siting of a wet waste HTL plant adjacent to the Great Lakes Water Authority (GLWA) facility with guidance from industry participants. Regional resource and siting analyses were conducted to identify feedstock availability, scale, and cost, as well as a beneficial site location. TEA with detailed rigorous capital cost estimation for the specific site application was conducted to evaluate the key economic metrics of most value to industrial partners. These include total capital investment, operating costs, minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of the biocrude and fuel blendstock, and NPV and internal rate of return IRR with sustainable fuel credits. Life cycle analysis was conducted to evaluate the supply chain greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the wet waste HTL process as compared with petroleum derived diesel. This study is also informed by years of R&D and process de-risking learnings and was conducted with a basic engineering HTL plant design and costing that akin to a “first-of-a-kind” plant economics. This differs from our conventional “nth plant ” SOT assessments. Specifically, the HTL process model has been updated with more operationally reliable methods for feed heating and phase separations. Further, we have implemented additional spare equipment for redundancy, a more rigorous installed equipment cost estimation approach, and additional costs associated with feed formatting and delivery, building, piping and site development. An Excel-based cost sheet based on the basic engineering design is also released alongside the report that allows users to conduct customized TEA with their own feed composition and financial assumptions.

Li, Shuyun↗

Biohydrogen: prospects for industrial utilization and energy resiliency in rural communities

Biohydrogen (bioH 2 ) production in rural regions of the United States leveraged from existing biomass waste streams serves two extant needs: rural energy resiliency and decarbonization of heavy industry, including the production of ammonia and other H 2 -dependent nitrogenous products. We consider bioH 2 production using two different strategies: (1) dark fermentation (DF) and (2) anaerobic digestion followed by steam methane reforming of the biogas (AD-SMR). Production of bioH 2 from biomass waste streams is a potentially ‘greener’ pathway in comparison to natural gas-steam methane reforming (NG-SMR), especially as fugitive emissions from these wastes are avoided. It also provides a decarbonizing potential not found in water-splitting technologies. Based on literature on DF and AD of crop residues, woody biomass residues from forestry wastes, and wastewaters containing fats, oils, and grease (FOG), we outline scenarios for bioH 2 production and displacement of fossil fuel derived methane. Finally, we compare the costs and carbon intensity (CI) of bioH 2 production with those of other H 2 production pathways.

08 HYDROGEN↗

Economic Perspectives of Biogas Production via Anaerobic Digestion

As the demand for utilizing environment-friendly and sustainable energy sources is increasing, the adoption of waste-to-energy technologies has started gaining attention. Producing biogas via anaerobic digestion (AD) is promising and well-established; however, this process in many circumstances is unable to be cost competitive with natural gas. In this research, we provide a technical assessment of current process challenges and compare the cost of biogas production via the AD process from the literature, Aspen Plus process modeling, and CapdetWorks software. We also provide insights on critical factors affecting the AD process and recommendations on optimizing the process. We utilize four types of wet wastes, including wastewater sludge, food waste, swine manure, and fat, oil, and grease, to provide a quantitative assessment of theoretical energy yields of biogas production and its economic potential at different plant scales. Our results show that the cost of biogas production from process and economic models are in line with the literature with a potential to go even lower for small-scale plants with technological advancements. This research illuminates potential cost savings for biogas production using different wastes and guide investors to make informed decisions, while achieving waste management goals.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

Sustainable Aviation Fuel from Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Wet Wastes

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) uses heat and pressure to liquefy the organic matter in biomass/waste feedstocks to produce biocrude. When hydrotreated the biocrude is converted into transportation fuels including sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). Further, by liquifying the organic matter in wet wastes such as sewage sludge, manure, and food waste, HTL can prevent landfilling or other disposal methods such as anerobic digestion, or incineration. A significant roadblock to the development of a new route for SAF is the strict approval process, and the large volumes required (>400 L) for testing. Tier α and β testing can predict some of the properties required for ASTM testing with <400 mL samples. The current study is the first to investigate the potential for utilizing wet-waste HTL biocrude (WWHTLB) as an SAF feedstock. Herein, several WWHTLB samples were produced from food waste, sewage sludge, and fats, oils, and grease, and subsequently hydrotreated and distilled to produce SAF samples. The fuels (both undistilled and distilled samples) were analyzed via elemental and 2D-GC-MS. Herein, we report the Tier α and β analysis of an SAF sample derived originally from a WWHTLB. The results of this work indicate that the upgraded WWHTLB material exhibits key fuel properties, including carbon number distribution, distillation profile, surface tension, density, viscosity, heat of combustion, and flash point, which all fall within the required range for aviation fuel. WWHTLB has therefore been shown to be a promising candidate feedstock for the production of SAF.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Hydrophobicity of Cryogenic Fluids for Fuel Transfer in Space Applicaitons

Introduction Hydrophobicity is the tendency of a fluid to repel another material or fluid. Hydrophobiciy can be measured through the wetting angle of the fluid on the surface of the other material. The greater the wetting angle, the more hydrophobic the surface is against the fluid. Hydrophobicity properties can be caused by one of two means, either through physical properties or chemical properties [\citenum{NARBUTT2020121}]. Physical hydrophobicity due to the surface of a solid creating surface roughness/patterning, minimizing the contact area between the fluid and the surface. This can be observed throughout nature, such as the surface of lotus leaves or butterfly wings. This physical property can be induced on a variety of surfaces, namely through laser etching, allowing a surface to be finely lineated to imitate these natural surfaces while controlling quantity, depth, and patterns of the etching on the surface [\citenum{10.1063/1.4905616}]. Physical hydrophobicity is therefore dependent on several variables, including the surface that the fluid is on and properties of the fluid itself, such as density and surface tension, both of which are dependent on temperature and/or pressure. Chemical hydrophobicity [\citenum{MadeiraHydrophobocicicici}] is due to the inherent chemical properties of the materials being used. This is most commonly due to the molecular structures changing the polarity of the materials. Depending on a nonpolar material will repel a polar material, proving to be hydrophobic, conversely if the polarity of the materials is the same (polar – polar, nonpolar – nonpolar), they will attract each other. Cryogenics refers to the behavior of materials at very low temperatures (<\ang{-100} C) [\citenum{ZOHURI20181}]. In space applications many things are inherently cryogenic, therefore this is an important field. There has been little research in how hydrophobicity changes at cryogenic temperatures. Cryogenic fluids are commonly used as fuels for spacecraft, therefore, integrating a hydrophobic surface can increase the transfer rate of the fuel. To test this, several experiments were set up to determine the hydrophobic properties of cryogenic fluids, including nitrogen (LN2), argon (LAr), oxygen (LOx), hydrogen (LH2), and methane (CH4), at cryogenic temperatures. Etched Wafer Testing A silicon wafer cut from a crystal of silicon [100] was used to model the potential hydrophobicity of various cryogenic fluids. Silicon [100] references to the crystallographic orientation of the silicon crystals in the wafer. These wafers were then laser etched to create a surface that is more likely to be hydrophobic. To test the hydrophobicity of the wafers at cryogenic temperatures, the temperatures of the wafers must be reduced to the same temperature as the cryogenic fluid being used to prevent rapid boil-off. To achieve this a double-walled vacuum insulated glass chamber was utilized. The chamber is open, with a double-walled glass that can be placed in a vacuum to remove condensation from the outside to allow easier viewing of the experiment. Furthermore, the silicon wafer's temperature must be lowered to the temperature of LN2, as well as maintain the temperature throughout the experiment. To achieve this a piece of 6061 aluminum was used, creating a stand-off for the wafer and it would allow for the insulation of the temperature of the wafers. The container was then filled with LN2 and once the LN2 stabilized the vaporization and the levels of LN2 dropped under the height of the wafer, the wafer was then allowed to air dry. Once the wafer was dry from the LN2, drops of LN2 were placed on the surface of the wafer for observation. During the first trial, the LN2 that was dropped on the surface displayed nonhydrophobic behaviors, spreading out along the surface, with a minimal wetting angle (too small to be measured). This process was repeated for liquid argon. Further testing with other cryogenic liquids will require different testing apparatuses due to being more volatile. Furthermore, several papers [\citenum{voltvolt7}] have suggested that running a voltage can induce a hydrophobic effect throughout a surface, further testing will include a voltage (constant and oscillating) to determine if voltage influences inducing hydrophobicity at cryogenic temperatures. Chemical Testing Coating the interior walls of the fuel tanks and fuel lines can successfully create a hydrophobic surface. The inherent problem is finding a material that can be used to coat the surface, furthermore, at these temperatures, the coating will remain solid, which could pose issues in maintaining the hydrophobic properties. To test this water (polar) is hydrophobic against oils and fats (nonpolar), therefore the same experiment as the etched wafer testing was conducted to determine if the hydrophobic properties will persist as the nonpolar material remains solid and the polar material remains a fluid. The water remained hydrophobic, allowing testing can expand to the cryogenic fluids. However, another hurdle is faced in finding a chemically opposite material to the cryogenic fluids being tested. As many of the cryogenic fluids being tested are diatomic, they are inherently nonpolar, therefore, the material used for the hydrophobic coating must be polar. Polar greases and lubricants are difficult to come by, however, lithium stearate, appears to be a potential candidate for creating a coated hydrophobic surface for cryogenic fluids at cryogenic temperatures.

Cryogenics↗