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NASA NTRS2005

International collaboration on Russian spacecraft and the case for free flyer biosatellites

Animal research has been critical to the initiation and progress of space exploration. Animals were the original explorers of "space" two centuries ago and have played a crucial role by demonstrating that the space environment, with precautions, is compatible with human survival. Studies of mammals have yielded much of our knowledge of space physiology. As spaceflights to other planets are anticipated, animal research will continue to be essential to further reveal space physiology and to enable the longer missions. Much of the physiology data collected from space was obtained from the Cosmos (Bion) spaceflights, a series of Russian (Soviet)-International collaborative flights, over a 22 year period, which employed unmanned, free flyer biosatellites. Begun as a Soviet-only program, after the second flight the Russians invited American and other foreign scientists to participate. This program filled the 10 year hiatus between the last US biosatellite and the first animal experiments on the shuttles. Of the 11 flights in the Cosmos program nine of them were international; the flights continued over the years regardless of political differences between the Soviet Union and the Western world. The science evolved from sharing tissues to joint international planning and development, and from rat postmortem tissue analysis to in vivo measurements of a host of monkey physiological parameters during flight. Many types of biological specimens were carried on the modified Vostok spacecraft, but only the mammalian studies are discussed herein. The types of studies done encompass the full range of physiology and have begun to answer "critical" questions of space physiology posed by various ad hoc committees. The studies have not only yielded a prodigious and significant body of data, they have also introduced some new perspectives in physiology. A number of the physiological insights gained are relevant to physiology on Earth. The Cosmos flights also added significantly to flight-related technology, some of which also has application on our planet. In summary, the Cosmos biosatellite flights were extremely productive and of low cost. The Bion vehicles are versatile in that they can be placed into a variety of orbits and altitudes, and can carry radiation sources or other hazardous material which cannot be carried on manned vehicles. With recent advances in sensor, robotic, and data processing technology, future free flyers will be even more productive, and will largely preclude the need to fly animal experiments on manned vehicles. Currently, mammalian researchers do not have access to space for an unknown time, seriously impeding the advancement and understanding of space physiology during long duration missions. Initiation of a new, international program of free flyer biosatellites is critical to our further understanding of space physiology, and essential to continued human exploration of space.

short duration↗

NASA NTRS1992

Flying U.S. science on the U.S.S.R. Cosmos biosatellites

The USSR Cosmos Biosatellites are unmanned missions with durations of approximately 14 days. They are capable of carrying a wide variety of biological specimens such as cells, tissues, plants, and animals, including rodents and rhesus monkeys. The absence of a crew is an advantage with respect to the use of radioisotopes or other toxic materials and contaminants, but a disadvantage with respect to the performance of inflight procedures or repair of hardware failures. Thus, experiments hardware and procedures must be either completely automated or remotely controlled from the ground. A serious limiting factor for experiments is the amount of electrical powers available, so when possible experiments should be self-contained with their own batteries and data recording devices. Late loading is restricted to approximately 48 hours before launch and access time upon recovery is not precise since there is a ballistic reentry and the capsule must first be located and recovery vehicles dispatched to the site. Launches are quite reliable and there is a proven track record of nine previous Biosatellite flights. This paper will present data and experience from the seven previous Cosmos flights in which the US has participated as well as the key areas of consideration in planning a flight investigation aboard this Biosatellite platform.

Flight Experiment↗

NASA NTRS1969

Biosatellite II mission

Biosatellite B was launched from Cape Kennedy, Florida, on a two-stage DELTA launch vehicle at 6:04 p.m. on 7 September, 1967. Approximately nine minutes later the 435 kg spacecraft biological laboratory was placed into a satisfactory 315 km near-circular earth orbit, successfully separated from the launch vehicle's second stage and was designated Biosatellite II. The scientific payload consisting of thirteen selected general biology and radiation experiments were subjected to planned, carefully controlled environmental conditions during 45 hours of earth-orbital flight. The decision was made to abbreviate the scheduled 3-day mission by approximately one day because of a threatening tropical storm in the recovery area, and a problem of communication with the spacecraft from the tracking stations. Highest priority was placed on recovery which was essential to obtain the scientific results on all the experiments. The operational phase of the mission came to a successful conclusion with the deorbit of the recovery capsule, deployment of the parachute system and air recovery by the United States Air Force. The 127 kg recovery capsule was returned to biology laboratories at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii, for disassembly and immediate inspection and analysis of the biological materials by the experimenters. It was evident immediately that the quality of the biology was excellent and this fact gave promise of a high return of scientific data. The environmental conditions provided to the experimental material in the spacecraft, provisions for experimental controls, and operational considerations are presented as they relate to interpretation of the experimental results.

Biosatellite 2 Project↗

NASA NTRS1971

Development of payload subsystem-primate mission-Biosatellite program

Design and operation of the primate life support subsystem for the Biosatellite Program as used during the flight of Biosatellite 3 are discussed. Included are preflight changes necessitated by the primate's (a Macaca nemistrina monkey) influence on the initial equipment design.

Hall, J. F., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1990

The US Experiments Flown on the Soviet Biosatellite Cosmos 1887

Cosmos 1887, a biosatellite containing biological and radiation experiments from the Soviet Union, the United States and seven other countries, was launched on September 29, 1987. One Rhesus monkey's feeder stopped working two days into the flight and a decision was made to terminate the mission after 12 1/2 days. The biosatellite returned to Earth on October 12, 1987. A system malfunction, during the reentry procedure, caused the Cosmos 1887 spacecraft to land approximately 1800 miles beyond the intended landing site and delayed the start of the postflight procedures by approximately 44 hours. Further information on the conditions at landing and postflight activities is included in the Mission Operations portion of this document. U.S. and U.S.S.R. specialists jointly conducted 26 experiments on this mission, including the postflight transfer of data, hardware and biosamples to the U.S.

Connolly, James P.↗

NASA NTRS1964