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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Tutorial: Machine-Learning-Based CREASE-2D Analysis of 2D SAXS Profiles to Characterize Anisotropic Nanostructures in Soft Materials

We present a tutorial to guide users on how to extend the Computational Reverse Engineering Analysis of Scattering Experiments-2D (CREASE-2D) framework to interpret their experimental two-dimensional small-angle scattering (SAS) data from soft materials (e.g., polymers, peptide amphiphiles, biomolecular fibrils). Unlike most traditional SAS analysis approaches, which typically rely on azimuthally averaged onedimensional (1D) profiles, CREASE-2D utilizes the complete 2D scattering profile to reveal information about anisotropy in the structure. In past applications, CREASE has provided insights into complex structural features, including the cross-sectional shapes of assembled nanostructures and dispersity in these features, which are difficult to discern with existing analytical models. While (1D- ) CREASE has been applied to SANS and SAXS data, this tutorial shares the steps for implementing CREASE-2D using an example of a dipeptide solution system, for which we have SAXS data. We present details for these steps involved in using CREASE-2D to interpret SAXS profiles: how to preprocess SAXS data, define relevant structural features, generate three-dimensional real-space structures for specific values of these features, train a machine learning (ML) surrogate model to predict scattering profiles for given structural features, and optimize these features using genetic algorithms (GA). Then, we use these steps to interpret complex 2DSAXS data collected from dipeptide solutions that, in microscopy images, exhibit nanoscale structures that could be elliptical tubes/ flat tapes/cylinders or a combination of these cross sections. Open-source codes, computational hardware, and software requirements, as well as the strengths and limitations of this protocol, are also presented. We expect researchers working with (soft) biomaterials, peptide amphiphiles, amphiphilic polymer solutions, polymer nanocomposites, and blends of particles/polymers will find this CREASE-2D method and this tutorial of use.

CREASE↗
DOE OSTI2025

A competition between 2D and 3D magnetic orderings in novel mixed valent copper frameworks

Low-dimensional hybrid inorganic–organic frameworks exhibit high structural flexibility and allow for the inclusion of various magnetic and optically-active species into their host structures. The emergence of copper-based hybrid structures for various optical applications provides a promising foundation for exploring the integration of magnetic sublattices, paving the way for advancements in magneto-optical coupling and multifunctional materials. Herein, we introduce a novel class of hybrid copper frameworks with covalently-connected alternating magnetic 2D copper(II) formate and non-magnetic copper(I) bromide layers. The anionic framework is stabilized by A + cations to form ACu 5 Br 4 (COOH) 4 (A + = Na + , K + , Rb + , NH 4 + ) semiconductors (bandgaps 2.1–2.2 eV) with optical transitions suitable for optoelectronic applications. Comprehensive magnetometry studies show that ACu 5 Br 4 (COOH) 4 compounds exhibit low-dimensional 2D short-range antiferromagnetic order within the formate layers, characterized by strong exchange coupling (J/k B ∼ −100 K). Upon further temperature reduction, interactions between Cu(II) layers give rise to 3D long-range magnetic order at ∼40 K, despite the large (8.6–8.8 Å) spatial separation of the magnetic Cu(II) formate layers by nonmagnetic Cu(I)–Br bridging layers. This transition is further supported by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. In conclusion, this study expands our understanding of low-dimensional hybrid frameworks and opens new avenues for the design of 2D multifunctional materials.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRS1993

Mechanical characterization of 2D, 2D stitched, and 3D braided/RTM materials

Braided composite materials have potential for application in aircraft structures. Fuselage frames, floor beams, wing spars, and stiffeners are examples where braided composites could find application if cost effective processing and damage tolerance requirements are met. Another important consideration for braided composites relates to their mechanical properties and how they compare to the properties of composites produced by other textile composite processes being proposed for these applications. Unfortunately, mechanical property data for braided composites do not appear extensively in the literature. Data are presented in this paper on the mechanical characterization of 2D triaxial braid, 2D triaxial braid plus stitching, and 3D (through-the-thickness) braid composite materials. The braided preforms all had the same graphite tow size and the same nominal braid architectures, (+/- 30 deg/0 deg), and were resin transfer molded (RTM) using the same mold for each of two different resin systems. Static data are presented for notched and unnotched tension, notched and unnotched compression, and compression after impact strengths at room temperature. In addition, some static results, after environmental conditioning, are included. Baseline tension and compression fatigue results are also presented, but only for the 3D braided composite material with one of the resin systems.

Deaton, Jerry W.↗
NASA NTRS2020

REQUIEM-2D Methodology: Spatially Resolved Stellar Populations of Massive Lensed Quiescent Galaxies from Hubble Space Telescope 2D Grism Spectroscopy

We present a novel Bayesian methodology to jointly model photometry and deep Hubble Space Telescope 2D grism spectroscopy of high-redshift galaxies. Our requiem2d code measures both unresolved and resolved stellar populations, ages, and star formation histories (SFHs) for the ongoing REsolving QUIEscent Magnified (REQUIEM) Galaxies Survey, which targets strong gravitationally lensed quiescent galaxies at z ∼ 2. We test the accuracy of requiem2d using a simulated sample of massive galaxies at z ∼ 2 from the Illustris cosmological simulation and find that we recover the general trends in SFH and median stellar ages. We further present a pilot study for the REQUIEM Galaxies Survey: MRG-S0851, a quintuply imaged, massive (log M ⁎ / M ʘ = 11.02 ± 0.04) red galaxy at z = 1.883 ± 0.001. With an estimated gravitational magnification of µ = 5.7 - 0.2 + 0.4, we sample the stellar populations on 0.6 kpc physical size bins. The global mass-weighted median age is constrained to be 1.8 - 0.2 + 0.3 Gyr, and our spatially resolved analysis reveals that MRG-S0851 has a flat age gradient in the inner 3 kpc core after taking into account the subtle effects of dust and metallicity on age measurements, favoring an early formation scenario. The analysis for the full REQUIEM-2D sample will be presented in a forthcoming paper with a beta release of the requiem2d code.

Strong gravitational lensing↗
DOE OSTI2025

2D Multivariate‐Metal‐Organic Frameworks (2D‐M 2 OF) for High Yield Ammonia Synthesis from Nitrate

Ammonia synthesis from nitrate offers a promising approach for both nitrate removal and nitrogen recycling. In this study, a series of 2D multivariate-metal-organic frameworks (M 2 OFs) is synthesized, incorporating transition metals such as Co, Ni, Mn, and Ag to enhance these processes. These M 2 OFs exhibit remarkable ammonia production performance, with the highest performance achieved using the quaternary structure exceeding a current density of 1 A cm −2 at −0.8 V vs RHE, with an ammonia Faradic efficiency (F.E.) of ≈90%, and a yield rate of 68 mg h −1 cm −2 . Our findings reveal that the synergy among different metal centers in M 2 OFs provides a new efficient reaction pathway for nitrate reduction via surface hydrogen co-adsorption, a mechanism not attainable with single-metal MOFs.

2D-M2OF↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Dissociative Recombination (DR) and Associative Ionization (AI) Cross Section Calculations for the NO+ + e yields N + O (2D+3P, 2P+3P, and 2D+1D) Reaction for Atmospheric Entry Modeling

During entry of a space craft into Earth atmosphere, the flow surrounding the vehicle becomes partially ionized leading to significant cation and free-electron production. Subsequently, electron impact excitation and dissociation form radiating excited state species that contribute to the heat load on the vehicle. While experimental data on selected total cross sections are available, few experiments address the need for accurate AI cross sections for metastable atomic states at the high temperatures realized in atmospheric re-entry. In order to maintain desired safety margins during atmospheric entry of a space vehicle, chemical reaction models need to accurately account for this process. For the present study, we have computed vibrationally resolved cross sections for the DR of NO+ for electron energies between 0.01 to 10 eV and apply microscopic reversibility to obtain the AI cross sections and rate coefficients. For the DR cross section calculations, we use state-of-the-art MRCI potential energy curves. The resulting adiabatic potential curves are transformed to a diabatic representation, which is used in time-dependent wave packet calculations to describe the nuclear motion of the dissociating cation upon collision with an electron. Based on the wave function evolution in time, these calculations provide T-matrix and cross sections for the DR including recombination into the low energy metastable atomic states. The DR and AI rate coefficients are compared with the available experimental data.

Ewa Papajak↗
DOE OSTI2025

An Investigation of Thermal Properties of 2D Materials [Dissertation]

Studying the thermal conductivity of 2D materials is important due to the applications of 2D materials in fields such as thermal management, thermoelectricity, renewable energy, and sensors. As such, measurements of the thermal conductivity of these 2D materials become important to measure. Thermal conductivity is often difficult to measure for 2D materials due to their atomically thin nature and many experimental methods for doing so requiring contact with the sample, which can alter the thermal properties. A non-contact method for calculating the thermal conductivity of 2D materials supported on substrates in order to model the thermal conductivity of 2D materials for devices, is proposed and experimentally performed in this dissertation. The optothermal Raman technique is a useful non-contact diagnostic technique useful in determining the thermal conductivity of 2D materials. The optothermal Raman typically does not account for heat losses due to convection or radiation or substrate resistance, which are shown to be important factors to consider when developing an optothermal Raman model. Additionally, the calculation of the interfacial thermal conductance between the bottom surface of the sample and the top surface of the substrate, plays an important role in determining the final value of the thermal conductivity of a supported sample, and will yield differing results based on whether or not the conductance is calculated using an approach such as the Diffuse Mismatch Model (DMM) or calculated directly by varying the laser heating profile (usually done by changing the laser objective). This is shown to be the case for both graphene on Ni, graphene on Cu, and SnSe 2 on Cu. In addition to experimentally calculating the thermal conductivity of a 2D material with the optothermal Raman technique, the thermal conductivity of 2D materials can also be calculated using computational methods. The three-phonon method is a method which can be used to simulate phonon scattering processes and determine the thermal conductivity of semiconductors, wherein phonon scattering is the dominant mechanism which determines the thermal conductivity. The three-phonon method uses relaxation times for phonon scattering with other phonons, electrons, and other material system elements, such as isotopes or material defects, in order to create a single-mode relaxation time approximation (SMRTA), which is used to calculate the final value of the thermal conductivity. An important consideration when determining the thermal conductivity of a 2D material using this method is the device geometry, which is reflected in this work as the phonon-boundary scattering relaxation time. This inclusion is important along with the inclusion of phonon-electron scattering in accurately determining the thermal conductivity of a 2D material. In both the optothermal Raman experiments and the three-phonon method computations, strain is shown to have a demonstrable effect on the thermal conductivity of 2D materials. When a 1.1% strain was applied to the mechanical properties of SnSe, the three-phonon processes yielded a lower thermal conductivity than the no-strain case. For the optothermal Raman experiments, the strain induced in the Cu substrate and transferred to a single-layer graphene (SLG) sample yields a trend where the thermal conductivity of the SLG decreases with respect to strain applied. In the case where the interfacial thermal conductance was calculated directly, the conductance increased with respect to strain applied. This presents strain as a reliable and viable method for tuning the thermal properties of 2D materials for device applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dimensional Control in Phase-Pure Coevaporated Quasi-2D Ruddlesden–Popper Structures

Fast, uncontrolled crystallization with several competing pathways makes solution-processing of phase-pure quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) metal halide Ruddlesden–Popper thin films challenging. Typically, solution-processing results in the formation of different structural phases with varying dimensionality ranging from 2D, to quasi-2D, and 3D, introducing bandgap disorder and inhibiting charge transport. In this work, we eliminate interactions between precursor salts and solvents by using controlled thermal coevaporation to grow quasi-2D thin films that show high phase purity and narrow phase distribution. We study the structural landscape using synchrotron-based X-ray scattering and charge-carrier dynamics using ultrafast pump–probe spectroscopy. We then demonstrate a strategy to control the crystallographic phase of the film through phosphonic acid-based surface modification. We use density functional theory to study the interactions between propylphosphonic acid and the organic precursors and find that the interactions of loosely bound phosphonic acid molecules with evaporated precursors, followed by the migration of phosphonic acids through the deposited thin film, dictate the film structure between 2D and quasi-2D phases. These findings introduce new solvent-free methods for the fabrication of phase-pure quasi-2D Ruddlesden–Popper thin films and control phase selectivity across different dimensional (2D and quasi-2D) structures.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

A 2D/3D Heterostructure Perovskite Solar Cell with a Phase‐Pure and Pristine 2D Layer

Abstract Interface engineering plays a critical role in advancing the performance of perovskite solar cells. As such, 2D/3D perovskite heterostructures are of particular interest due to their optoelectrical properties and their further potential improvements. However, for conventional solution‐processed 2D perovskites grown on an underlying 3D perovskite, the reaction stoichiometry is normally unbalanced with excess precursors. Moreover, the formed 2D perovskite is impure, leading to unfavorable energy band alignment at the interface. Here a simple method is presented that solves both issues simultaneously. The 2D formation reaction is taken first to completion, fully consuming excess PbI 2 . Then, isopropanol is utilized to remove excess organic ligands, control the 2D perovskite thickness, and obtain a phase‐pure, n = 2, 2D perovskite. The outcome is a pristine (without residual 2D precursors) and phase‐pure 2D perovskite heterostructure with improved surface passivation and charge carrier extraction compared to the conventional solution process. PSCs incorporating this treatment demonstrate a notable improvement in both stability and power conversion efficiency, with negligible hysteresis, compared to the conventional process.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Toward improved property prediction of 2D materials using many-body quantum Monte Carlo methods

The field of 2D materials has grown dramatically in the past two decades. 2D materials can be utilized for a variety of next-generation optoelectronic, spintronic, clean energy, and quantum computing applications. These 2D structures, which are often exfoliated from layered van der Waals materials, possess highly inhomogeneous electron densities and can possess short- and long-range electron correlations. The complexities of 2D materials make them challenging to study with standard mean-field electronic structure methods such as density functional theory (DFT), which relies on approximations for the unknown exchange-correlation functional. To overcome the limitations of DFT, highly accurate many-body electronic structure approaches such as diffusion Monte Carlo (DMC) can be utilized. In the past decade, DMC has been used to calculate accurate magnetic, electronic, excitonic, and topological properties in addition to accurately capturing interlayer interactions and cohesion and adsorption energetics of 2D materials. Here, this approach has been applied to 2D systems of wide interest, including graphene, phosphorene, MoS 2 , CrI 3 , VSe 2 , GaSe, GeSe, borophene, and several others. In this review article, we highlight some successful recent applications of DMC to 2D systems for improved property predictions beyond standard DFT.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2026

2D in-Plane Ordered MXene Nanosheets Derived from (Mo 2/3 Er 1/3 ) 2 AlC Rare-Earth i-MAX for Energy Storage Applications

MXenes have become one of the most versatile families of two-dimensional (2D) materials due to their high conductivity, hydrophilicity, and remarkable electrochemical performance. This has stimulated intense efforts to design and synthesize MXenes, including structurally unique in-plane ordered 2D MXenes called i-MXenes. Here, we have synthesized the quaternary rare earth (RE)-based i-MAX phase (Mo 2/3 Er 1/3 ) 2 AlC using an arc melting method, and the corresponding 2D i-MXene was then obtained through a LiF/HCl soft etching process. Literature studies have shown that Al and the RE element are etched out during the etching process, leading to the formation of pure vacancy-ordered Mo1.33C 2D i-MXene. However, our investigation reveals that upon exposure to a fluorine solution, the i-MAX phase forms RE fluoride impurities, which are challenging to remove through HCl−DI water washing and persist in the final product, resulting in impure Mo 1.33 C@Er i-MXene. These results were confirmed by various characterizations such as X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning transmission electron microscopy. Although the Mo 1.33 C@Er electrode showed a 24-fold increase in specific capacitance compared to its parent i-MAX phase, it still exhibited a high charge-transfer resistance arising from the insulating nature of RE fluoride byproducts, which adversely influence the overall capacitance behavior of the synthesized 2D Mo 1.33 C@Er i-MXenes. This study contributes to identifying pathways for the preparation of pure 2D i-MXenes from RE-based i-MAX phases and developing improved synthesis methods. With additional process optimization, the 2D i-MXene holds a strong potential for electrochemical energy storage applications. Additionally, the electronic structures of Mo 1.33 C were theoretically studied using first-principles density functional theory calculations, which revealed that pristine Mo 1.33 C is metallic, and this metallic nature is preserved even with −O, −F, and mixed functionalization.

chemical structure↗
DOE OSTI2025

Anisotropic Thermal Transport in Quasi-2D Ruddlesden-Popper Hybrid Perovskite Superlattices

Two-dimensional hybrid metal-halide perovskites (2D-MHPs) have emerged as important solution-processed semiconductors with favorable optical and electronic properties for diverse applications in photovoltaics, optoelectronics, and spintronics. The quasi-2D layered structures, featuring large acoustic impedance mismatches between the organic and inorganic sublattices, are expected to result in distinct and anisotropic thermal transport properties along the cross-plane and in-plane directions. Here, we introduce transducer-free vibrational-pump-visible-probe (VPVP) approaches that enable accurate quantification of anisotropic thermal transport properties in various archetypical single-crystalline 2D-MHPs. Specifically, using VPVP spectroscopy and VPVP microscopy, we measure the anisotropic thermal diffusivities of 2D-MHPs with systematically varied Pb-I octahedral layer thicknesses, as well as organic spacer types and lengths, revealing how these structural parameters alter the cross-plane and in-plane thermal transport properties in distinct ways. While diffuse interface scattering plays an important role in dictating cross-plane thermal transport, in-plane thermal transport is primarily determined by phonon transport within interconnected inorganic layers. Density functional theory incorporating four-phonon scatterings provides further insight into the low thermal conductivity and modest thermal conduction anisotropy in 2D-MHPs. Our work demonstrates a new all-optical and noncontact method, which requires minimal sample preparation and allows direct visualization of cross-plane and in-plane thermal transport, potentially compatible with sample environments. The demonstrated VPVP approaches can advance understanding of thermal transport in 2D-MHPs as well as wide-ranging hybrid and polymeric semiconductors beyond 2D-MHPs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Artificial-Intelligence Aided Design and Synthesis of Novel Layered 2D Multi-Principal Element Materials for Energy Storage (Final Report)

This DOE-EPSCoR project aimed to predict, synthesize, and characterize novel layered two-dimensional (2D) high-entropy materials (HEMs). These 2D-HEMs, composed of multiple principal elements in nearly equal concentrations, are distinct from traditional 2D materials (typically containing two or three elements) and conventional alloys (dominated by a single primary element with minor secondary additions). Their unique structural and compositional features enable significant lattice strain accommodation, resulting in enhanced electrode performance and potential applications in catalysis, hydrogen storage, sensing, quantum information technologies, and flexible electronics. The research focused on addressing four fundamental questions: (i) What combinations of elements can form stable and synthesizable 2D-HEMs? (ii) What mechanisms drive the stability and synthesizability of crystalline single-phase 2D-HEMs? (iii) How do local chemical disorder and defects influence the macroscopic electronic and mechanical properties? and (iv) What charge storage mechanisms are active in selectively synthesized 2D-HEMs for battery and supercapacitor electrode applications? To achieve these goals, the project employed an integrated theory-experiment approach, incorporating high-throughput first-principles calculations, theoretical modeling, data mining, experimental synthesis, and advanced characterization techniques. The advanced computing resources and state-of-the-art experimental characterization facilities at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) were leveraged through collaboration. Beyond scientific advancements, the project contributed to workforce development. Two postdoctoral researchers and three graduate students at the University of Maine were trained through co-advising by ORNL scientists and collaborative interactions, strengthening their expertise in cutting-edge materials science.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electrical Transport Interplay with Charge Density Waves, Magnetization, and Disorder Tuned by 2D van der Waals Interface Modification via Elemental Intercalation and Substitution in ZrTe 3 , 2H-TaS 2 , and Cr 2 Si 2 Te 6 Crystals

Electrical transport in 2D materials exhibits unique behaviors due to reduced dimensionality, broken symmetries, and quantum confinement. It serves as both a sensitive probe for the emergence of coherent electronic phases and a tool to actively manipulate many-body correlated states. Exploring their interplay and interdependence is crucial but remains underexplored. This review integratively cross-examines the atomic and electronic structures and transport properties of van der Waals-layered crystals ZrTe 3 , 2H-TaS 2 , and Cr 2 Si 2 Te 6 , providing a comprehensive understanding and uncovering new discoveries and insights. A common observation from these crystals is that modifying the atomic and electronic interface structures of 2D van der Waals interfaces using heteroatoms significantly influences the emergence and stability of coherent phases, as well as phase-sensitive transport responses. In ZrTe 3 , substitution and intercalation with Se, Hf, Cu, or Ni at the 2D vdW interface alter phonon–electron coupling, valence states, and the quasi-1D interface Fermi band, affecting the onset of CDW and SC, manifested as resistance upturns and zero-resistance states. We conclude here that these phenomena originate from dopant-induced variations in the lattice spacing of the quasi-1D Te chains of the 2D vdW interface, and propose an unconventional superconducting mechanism driven by valence fluctuations at the van Hove singularity, arising from quasi-1D lattice vibrations. Short-range in-plane electronic heterostructures at the vdW interface of Cr 2 Si 2 Te 6 result in a narrowed band gap. The sharp increase in in-plane resistance is found to be linked to the emergence and development of out-of-plane ferromagnetism. The insertion of 2D magnetic layers such as Mn, Fe, and Co into the vdW gap of 2H-TaS 2 induces anisotropic magnetism and associated transport responses to magnetic transitions. Overall, 2D vdW interface modification offers control over collective electronic behavior, transport properties, and their interplays, advancing fundamental science and nanoelectronic devices.

2D van der Waals interfaces↗
DOE OSTI2024

Atmospheric Exposure Triggers Light-Induced Degradation in 2D Lead-Halide Perovskites

Quasi-2D perovskites have been pivotal in recent efforts to stabilize perovskite solar cells. Despite the stability boost provided when these materials are introduced in perovskite solar cells, little is known about the intrinsic light and environmental stability of quasi-2D perovskites. In this study, we characterize the photostability of exfoliated quasi-2D perovskite single crystals in air using photoluminescence, infrared, X-ray fluorescence, and energydispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Photoexcitation leads to severe material loss with oxygen as a prerequisite for material breakdown. The effect can be traced to the formation of reactive oxygen species, as demonstrated by increases in the photostability under oxygen-free conditions. We show the effect of combined passivation steps, showcasing the stability enhancement offered by 2D-capping layers in combination with an oxygen-free atmosphere. Our results reveal that the stability of illuminated quasi-2D perovskites depends critically on oxygen exposure, highlighting the importance of oxygen-blocking passivation strategies for stable 2D perovskite-based devices.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Unraveling Dimensional Tuning: From 2D to 3D in Covalent Organic Frameworks for Enhanced 2e – Oxygen Reduction Reaction

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) with a two-dimensional (2D) topology have recently emerged as promising catalyst systems for the electrosynthesis of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) from oxygen (O 2 ). However, designing 2D catalysts to achieve higher H 2 O 2 selectivity presents a significant challenge because of the extensive layer stacking and the aggregated active sites located in the basal planes. It results in lower atom utilization, which requires attention. In this study, we present two functionally similar COFs: one with a 2D rhombus topology (2D@BT_TPA-COF) and another with a three-dimensional (3D) noninterpenetrated pts topology (3D@BT_TPA-COF). Both COFs were utilized for the 2e – oxygen reduction reaction (2e – ORR). Tunning the dimensionality from 2D to 3D resulted in an increase in H 2 O 2 selectivity from approximately ~56% to approximately ~96% (at 0.4 V) and a rise in the turnover frequency (TOF) from 0.05 to 0.08 s –1 at 0.3 V. Nonaggregated active site distribution over 3D topology, featuring higher active site exposure, provides better access to the O 2 /electrolyte and facilitates electron transfer leading to higher 2e – ORR activity and selectivity compared to the 2D counterpart.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗