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DOE OSTI2021

Impact of size and thermal gradient on supercooling of phase change materials for thermal energy storage

Phase change material based thermal energy storage has many current and potential applications in the heating and cooling of buildings, battery and electronics thermal management, thermal textiles, and dry cooling of power plants. However, connecting lab scale thermal data obtained with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to the performance of large-scale practical systems has been a major challenge primarily due to the dependence of supercooling on the size and temperature gradient of the system. Here we show how a phase change material’s supercooling behavior can be characterized experimentally using common lab scale thermal analysis techniques. We then develop a statistics based theoretical model that uses the lab-scale data on small samples to quantitatively predict the supercooling performance for a general thermal energy storage application of any size, including also allowing for the possibility of temperature gradients. Finally, we validate the modeling methodology by comparing to experimental results for solid-solid phase change in neopentyl glycol, which shows how the model successfully predicts the changes in supercooling temperature across a large range of cooling rates (2 orders of magnitude) and volumes (3 orders of magnitude). By accounting for thermal gradients, the model avoids ~2x error incurred by lumped approximations.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Agent-based modeling for multimodal transportation of CO 2 for carbon capture, utilization, and storage: CCUS-agent

Here, to understand the system-level interactions between the entities in Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS), an agent-based foundational modeling tool, CCUS-Agent, is developed for a large-scale study of transportation flows and infrastructure in the United States. Key features of the tool include (i) modular design, (ii) multiple transportation modes, (iii) capabilities for extension, and (iv) testing against various system components and networks of small and large sizes. Five matching algorithms for CO 2 supply agents (e.g., powerplants and industrial facilities) and demand agents (e.g., storage and utilization sites) are explored: Most Profitable First Year (MPFY), Most Profitable All Years (MPAY), Shortest Total Distance First Year (SDFY), Shortest Total Distance All Years (SDAY), and Shortest distance to long-haul transport All Years (ACAY). Before matching, the supply agent, demand agent, and route must be available, and the connection must be profitable. A profitable connection means the supply agent portion of revenue from the 45Q tax credit must cover the supply agent costs and all transportation costs, while the demand agent revenue portion must cover all demand agent costs. A case study employing over 5500 supply and demand agents and multimodal CCUS transportation infrastructure in the contiguous United States is conducted. The results suggest that it is possible to capture over 9 billion tonnes (GT) of CO 2 from 2025 to 2043, which will increase significantly to 22 GT if the capture costs are reduced by 40 %. The MPFY and SDFY algorithms capture more CO 2 earlier in the time horizon, while the MPAY and SDAY algorithms capture more later in the time horizon.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2022

Thermal Storage Integrated into Air-Source Heat Pumps to Leverage Building Electrification: A Systematic Literature Review

Air-source heat pumps (ASHPs) can support a decarbonized economy by replacing combustion appliances in homes and electrifying heating systems in buildings. However, ASHPs have not seen significant adoption primarily due to deteriorated performance under cold conditions - at very low temperatures they require auxiliary resistance heating to meet the heating demand and defrost the evaporator. The additional heat lowers the system efficiency. Thermal energy storage (TES) is a candidate technology to help overcome some of these issues. This paper presents a systematic literature review to map the existing research on the integration of TES into ASHPs. Our review of 59 publications indicates that thermal storage increases the ASHP coefficient of performance by 27% on average, albeit with higher initial cost compared to conventional fossil-fueled heating systems. Phase change materials may be ideal to be integrated with ASHPs due to their high energy density and compact design, but only a few publications address TES sizing and design. First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics are widely used to create metrics to assess ASHP-TES integration, and only recently have cost and environmental impact been explored. This literature review suggests that more comprehensive metrics are needed to evaluate the potential benefits of ASHP-TES systems.

air source heat pump↗

DOE OSTI2025

Development and evaluation of a multi-functional heat pump with embedded thermal storage

We developed and tested a novel multi-functional packaged vertical heat pump designed for multi-family buildings, capable of providing space cooling, space heating, water heating, and energy storage integration. The system employs a 3-speed scroll compressor and supports energy-efficient cooling and heating across different ambient conditions, while utilizing both indoor and outdoor air sources for water heating. Key performance metrics include an integrated energy efficiency ratio of 18.0 for cooling, a heating seasonal performance factor of 10.0, and a coefficient of performance (COP) of 2.1 for heating in cold climates down to −15 ˚C. Additionally, the system delivers an annual water heating COP greater than 4.0, with outstanding performance in combined space cooling and water heating modes, achieving a total COP of 8.8 by recovering condenser waste heat. The heat pump also demonstrated thermal energy storage capabilities, integrating with phase change material systems to store heating and cooling energy. Furthermore, this versatile system offers a promising solution for improving energy efficiency and sustainability in multi-family buildings, providing high-performance heating, cooling, and water heating across a range of climates.

COP↗

DOE OSTI2026

Experimental study of a thermal energy storage-integrated heat pump system for load shifting in space cooling and heating

This study experimentally investigates an all-season thermal energy storage-integrated heat pump (TES-HP) system developed to enhance building energy efficiency and support grid-interactive operation through load shifting in both cooling and heating. A 4-ton commercial rooftop air-source heat pump was modified by integrating a hydronic thermal energy storage (TES) unit containing a phase change material (PCM) with a melting temperature of 22.0 °C. The system employs two reversing valves and three electronic expansion valves to enable six operating modes, including normal, TES charging, and TES discharging in both cooling and heating seasons. A subcooling-controlled electronic expansion valve was implemented to mitigate refrigerant maldistribution caused by unequal internal volumes among the heat exchangers. Compared with a baseline heat pump, the TES-HP reduced power consumption by 30–50% during cooling at an ambient temperature of 40.6 °C, and by up to 60% during heating at −15.0 °C, while maintaining high performance under cold-climate conditions. Additionaly to experimental evaluation, a simplified annualized on-peak analysis was conducted to compare the TES-HP with the baseline system, indicating an on-peak electricity reduction of approximately 876 kWhₑ per unit per year and associated on-peak cost savings under time-of-use pricing. These results demonstrate that the TES-HP effectively decouples HP operation from adverse ambient conditions, improving flexibility, resilience, and energy efficiency. This work advances prior research by experimentally proving the integration of PCM-based TES for a year-round, load-flexible HVAC operation.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2026

Theoretical analysis of a refrigerant injection-enhanced air source heat pump with thermal energy storage for extended cold-climate and defrosting operations

This study investigates a conceptual refrigerant injection-enhanced air source heat pump with integrated thermal energy storage (ITES-ASHP) that combines two-phase flash tank injection with phase change material (PCM) thermal energy storage (TES) to extend cold-climate operation and maintain indoor heating during defrost. A steady-state, mode-based thermodynamic cycle model is developed to evaluate heating and defrosting modes with and without refrigerant injection and TES integration over an outdoor temperature range of 8 to −25 °C. The framework is applied to refrigerants R-290, R-454B, R-410 A, and R-32. A parametric study is conducted for an 18-kW system rated for an outdoor temperature of 8 °C, with the compressor frequency scheduled to 150 Hz. The optimal PCM phase-change temperature is identified as 20 °C for R-290, R-454B, and R-410 A, and 15 °C for R-32. At the design condition of −25 °C outdoor temperature, the proposed concept achieves a combined COP of 2.22 for R-290, corresponding to a 60% increase relative to the theoretical single-stage baseline for combined heating and defrosting operation. Safety screening based on compressor discharge temperature (≤ 120 °C) and injection quality (≥ 0.65), together with performance evaluation, indicates that R-290 is the most suitable candidate, followed by R-410 A and R-454B. Under the assumptions and constraints used here, R-32 is found to be less suitable due to excessive discharge temperatures and a higher risk of wet compression.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2020

Enhanced NO, CO and C 3 H 6 conversion on Pt/Pd catalysts: Impact of oxygen storage material and catalyst architecture

Simultaneous conversion of NO, CO and C 3 H 6 under stoichiometric conditions was carried out on washcoated monoliths containing oxygen storage material (OSM)-promoted mixed Platinum group metals (PGM: Pt(95 %)/Pd(5 %)), to evaluate OSM promotion and to identify the best architecture. The studied OSMs include ceria-zirconia (Ce 0.3 Zr 0.7 O 2 ; CZO) and mixed metal oxide spinel (Mn 0.5 Fe 2.5 O 4 ; MFO). PGM supported directly on the OSM was found to be the best design for CZO, leading to a ~70 °C simultaneous decrease in the light-off temperature (T 80 ; feed temperature giving 80 % conversion) for NO, CO and C 3 H 6 conversion compared to the alumina-supported PGM. Close coupling between the PGM and CZO is responsible for the activity promotion. In contrast, a dual-layer architecture (top PGM layer, bottom MFO layer) outperformed the MFO-supported PGM catalyst. The dual-layer PGM-MFO catalyst decreased the T 80 by ~50 °C for NO, CO and C 3 H 6 conversion compared to the PGM-only catalyst. Enhancement obtained with the dual-layer PGM-MFO architecture relies on a direct catalytic contribution from the spinel. During lean/rich modulation the addition of CZO or spinel helps to mitigate the detrimental impact of modulation on NO, CO and C 3 H 6 conversion above 400 °C. The data suggest that both CZO and MFO can buffer lean/rich modulation but exhibit preference to different reductants; CZO-supported PGM and dual-layer PGM-MFO show no conversion decrease during modulation for CO or C 3 H 6 modulation, respectively. Dynamic oxygen storage capacity (DOSC) measurements show that the spinel exhibits ~10 times higher DOSC than CZO for both CO and C 3 H 6 reductants. Both CO and C 3 H 6 are equally effective reductants for the MFO but CO is better for CZO and PGM-deposited CZO. The study provides useful insight into benefits of OSM and provides guidance for optimization of the multi-component PGM + OSM catalyst composition and architecture.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

Effect of crystallite size on lithium storage performance of high entropy oxide (Cr 0.2 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 Ni 0.2 Zn 0.2 ) 3 O 4 nanoparticles

High-entropy oxides (HEOs), known for their high theoretical capacity and structural stability, are considered promising anode materials for next-generation lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). In this research, we synthesized a novel spinel-type HEO, (Cr 0.2 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 Ni 0.2 Zn 0.2 ) 3 O 4 , using a solution combustion method. By adjusting the quantity of the combustion agent, we produced samples with varying crystallite sizes. The crystallite size of the HEOs initially enlarges with an increased combustion agent, then diminishes. The enhancement of crystallite size correlates with improved electrochemical performance for lithium storage. Notably, the (Cr 0.2 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 Ni 0.2 Zn 0.2 ) 3 O 4 nanoparticles, with the largest crystallite size of 36.3 nm, demonstrated a reversible capacity of 343 mA h g -1 after 100 cycles at 100 mA g -1 , a capacity retention to 319 mA h g -1 after 1000 cycles at 1 A g -1 , and a commendable rate capability of 260 mA h g -1 at 2 A g -1 . Furthermore, this study underscores the pivotal role of crystallite size in LIB performance and presents a viable strategy to enhance the lithium storage capabilities of HEOs and other metal oxides.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Monitoring pipeline integrity of underground gas storage facilities using membrane-based electrochemical sensors

Effective monitoring of internal corrosion risk is crucial to ensuring the safety and longevity of natural gas pipeline infrastructure. While electrochemical sensors are commonly used to assess corrosion rates and corrosion indicators in aqueous fluids, they are rarely used in gas pipelines as these fluids lack the ionic conductivity needed for electrochemical measurements. The inclusion of ion-conductive membranes into electrochemical sensors can extend their functionality into humidified gas streams, providing critical information about emerging corrosion events that are common during withdrawal season in pipeline systems downstream from underground storage facilities. In parallel, new protective films, like those obtained through cold spray coating, are being developed to protect oil and gas pipelines and recover losses in structural integrity due to corrosion damage. Herein, we demonstrate how membrane-based electrochemical sensors (MBES) can be used to monitor fluid corrosivity by examining their response to changes in water content for a wide range of fluid compositions. It was found that MBES readings were highly sensitive to water content changes with membrane conductivity measurements varying from 10 –6 to 10 –1 S cm -1 , and corrosion rate measurements which varied from 10 –7 to 1 mm y -1 . Electron microscopy confirmed that the self-healing characteristics of metal coating films were still active despite their inclusion into an MBES probe. In conclusion, these findings indicate that membrane-based corrosion monitoring can be expanded to monitor coated-pipeline materials and provide early detection of emerging corrosion upsets relevant to underground gas storage facilities.

Electrochemical sensor↗

DOE OSTI2022

Pore space partition of metal-organic frameworks for gas storage and separation

Pore space partition (PSP) concept is a synthetic design concept and can also serve as a structure analysis method useful for next-step synthetic planning and execution. PSP provides an integrated chemistry-topology-focused tool to design new materials platforms. While PSP is no less effective for making large-pore materials, the growing importance of small-molecule gas storage and separation for green-energy applications provides impetus for developing small-pore materials for which the PSP strategy is uniquely suited. Currently, the best embodiment of the PSP concept is the partitioned-acs (pacs) platform in which both fine or coarse adjustments to the building blocks have sparked a transformation of a prototype framework into a huge and continuously expanding family of chemically robust materials with controllable pore metrics and functionalities suitable for tailored applications. The pacs compositional diversity results from the platform’s intrinsic multi-module nature, geometric flexibility and tolerance towards individual module variations, and mutual structure-directing effects among various modules, all of which combine to enable the molecular-level uniform co-assemblies of chemical components rarely seen together elsewhere. Here, in this contribution, we present an overview of different pore space engineering methods and how different MOF materials have contributed to important advances in chemical stability, industrial gas storage and gas separation. In particular, we will focus on synthetic assembly of the pacs system, highlighting the differences of pacs materials from other MOF platforms and advantages of pacs materials in enhancing various MOF properties.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2021

Modified bornite materials with high electrochemical performance for sodium and lithium storage

Mineral-based functional materials have attracted enormous attention due to the advantages of high production, good material consistency, environmental friendliness, and low cost. However, the efficient utilization of natural minerals for high-performance energy storage is rarely reported. Here, we demonstrate a mineral-derived anode material Cu 5 FeS 4 coated with carbon for both sodium-ion and lithium-ion batteries. The findings show that ball milling bornite in the presence of polyvinylpyrrolidone followed by optimal-temperature carbonization results in S, N-codoped Cu 5 FeS 4 particles with the desired surface properties, enhanced electronic conductivity, and abundant active sites that deliver high reversible capacity and maintain superior long-term cycling performance at a high current density of 2.0 A g –1 . This work sheds light on potential energy storage use cases for naturally abundant mineral-based materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Enhancing heat pump water heater performance with embedded phase change materials thermal energy storage: First hour rating improvement and demand response operation

The increasing global emphasis on energy efficiency and sustainability has put heat pump water heaters (HPWHs) in the spotlight as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional water heating systems. However, their widespread adoption is limited by challenges such as insufficient First Hour Rating (FHR), suboptimal control mechanisms, and limited flexibility for demand response operations. Here, to address these limitations, this study proposes an innovative HPWH system integrated with embedded phase change material (PCM)-based thermal energy storage (TES). The research introduces a novel design and control strategy that leverages optimized PCM integration to enhance thermal storage capacity, improve hot water delivery during peak demand, and increase load-shifting potential. A combination of system modeling, performance simulation, and demand response control strategy evaluation was employed to quantify the benefits of PCM integration. Results demonstrate that the proposed PCM-TES HPWH system significantly enhances FHR, with an optimal 7.0 lb. of PCM increasing FHR by over 26 %—from 62 to 78 gal—for a standard 50-gal HPWH. Additionally, under advanced demand response operation using a preheat strategy, the system reduces the percentage of control temperature out-of-band time from 65 % (conventional HPWH) to just 11.6 %, enabling a more stable and efficient hot water supply. This research contributes a novel PCM-embedded HPWH design and control framework that addresses both performance and grid-interactivity challenges. The findings offer a viable pathway to enhancing the operational efficiency, flexibility, and grid responsiveness of residential water heating systems.

Demand response control↗

DOE OSTI2024

CO 2 storage site characterization using ensemble-based approaches with deep generative models

Estimating spatially distributed properties such as permeability from available sparse measurements is a great challenge in efficient subsurface CO 2 storage operations. In this paper, a deep generative model that can accurately capture complex subsurface structure is tested with an ensemble-based inversion method for accurate and accelerated characterization of CO 2 storage sites. We chose Wasserstein Generative Adversarial Network with Gradient Penalty (WGAN-GP) for its realistic reservoir property representation and Ensemble Smoother with Multiple Data Assimilation (ES-MDA) for its robust data fitting and uncertainty quantification capability. WGAN-GP are trained to generate high-dimensional permeability fields from a low-dimensional latent space and ES-MDA then updates the latent variables by assimilating available measurements. Several subsurface site characterization examples including Gaussian, channelized, and fractured reservoirs are used to evaluate the accuracy and computational efficiency of the proposed method and the main features of the unknown permeability fields are characterized accurately with reliable uncertainty quantification. Furthermore, the estimation performance is compared with a widely-used variational, i.e., optimization-based, inversion approach, and the proposed approach outperforms the variational inversion method in several benchmark cases. We explain such superior performance by visualizing the objective function in the latent space: because of nonlinear and aggressive dimension reduction via generative modeling, the objective function surface becomes extremely complex while the ensemble approximation can smooth out the multi-modal surface during the minimization. This suggests that the ensemble-based approach works well over the variational approach when combined with deep generative models at the cost of forward model runs unless convergence-ensuring modifications are implemented in the variational inversion.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2020

Optimal design of microseismic monitoring network: Synthetic study for the Kimberlina CO2 storage demonstration site

Microseismic monitoring can play a crucial role to ensure safe long-term geological carbon storage. For reliable long-term monitoring for CO2-injection-induced microseismic events, a surface seismic array is desirable in addition to borehole geophone sensors. Optimal design of surface seismic network is of great interest to achieve cost-effective monitoring. We develop a methodology to determine the optimal number of surface seismic stations with a geometrically satisfactory distribution for given monitoring regions. We design an optimal microseismic monitoring network based on widely-accepted guiding principles, and the relationship between the location accuracy of microseismic events and the total number of seismic stations. We determine the optimal number of seismic stations based on the trade-off curve of the event location accuracy vs. the total number of seismic stations. We apply our optimal design method to the Kimberlina carbon storage site in California. We use a synthetic Kimberlina model to show that approximately 20 surface seismic stations with a geometrically satisfactory distribution are preferred for the best trade-off between the cost and the event location accuracy.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Effect of CO 2 -brine-rock reactions on pore architecture and permeability in dolostone: Implications for CO 2 storage and EOR

Geologic carbon sequestration (GCS) is considered a feasible technology for storing substantive volumes of greenhouse gases in subsurface geological formations. In the reservoir, far from carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) injection wells or in post-injection scenarios, diffusion dominates over advection. This condition conjoins with spatially distributed geochemical reactions to induce heterogeneous changes in pore architecture, i.e. pore body and throat sizes or surface roughness. These changes can affect CO 2 transport properties and storage capacity. In this work, we investigated mineral dissolution and precipitation in dolomite samples saturated with a CO 2 -saturated brine at 93 °C and 34.5 MPa, aged without flow. Two rock types samples, i.e. intergranular- and vuggy-dominant, were selected to investigate changes in pore size, porosity and permeability under reactive conditions. Mineral dissolution and precipitation were characterized using scanning electron microscopy. Changes in pore size were quantified via time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) transverse relaxation time (T 2 ) and diffusion coefficient (D) distributions. We show that mineral dissolution likely occurs in highly permeable pathways. These observations are confirmed through analysis of (T 2 ) and diffusion coefficient (D) distributions. In contrast to results during CO 2 -enriched brine continuous injection, mineral precipitation was observed in micropores. The leftward shift of the T 2 peaks, corresponding to micropores, also evidenced mineral precipitation in lowpermeability zones. However, microscale alterations resulted only in a subtle increase in porosity and permeability. Results in this study shed light on effects of geochemical reactions on alteration of rock properties in diffusion-dominated regions during CO 2 storage.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Quantifying the effects of pressure management for the Williston basin Brine Extraction and Storage Test (BEST) site using machine learning

Active reservoir management (ARM) through brine extraction can reduce pressure buildup during large-scale implementation of carbon capture and storage (CCS) projects. This study used machine learning (ML)-assisted approaches to analyze bottomhole pressure (BHP) responses to various brine injection and extraction scenarios. Field monitoring data were collected over a 2-year operation period at two injection wells and one extraction well (about 400 meters away) as part of a Brine Extraction and Storage Test (BEST) in the North Dakota portion of the Williston Basin. Injection activities increased the BHPs at the injection wells by around 0.70 MPa (~100 psi) during the operation period. Extraction activities demonstrated the capability to decrease the BHPs at the injection wells by approximately 0.21–0.34 MPa (30–50 psi) depending on the ratio of the extraction and injection well flow rates (the “extraction ratio” – a normalization procedure used in the analysis). The pressure reduction provided by the extraction well equated to 30%–50% of the pressure buildup at the injection well. Furthermore, this work shows how ML analytics can play a key role in estimating reservoir pressure responses for complex injection and extraction activities during pressure management practices of CCS projects.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Particle-wall heat transfer in narrow-channel bubbling fluidized beds for thermal energy storage

Robust metal oxide particles can provide low-cost and stable thermal energy storage (TES) to temperatures up to 1200 °C or higher. The transfer of heat into and out of the particles in cost-effective high-temperature particle heat exchangers remains a principal challenge to implementing particle-based TES. The present work expands on prior studies of particle-wall heat transfer in narrow-channel fluidized beds operated in the bubbling fluidization regime. Batch-mode experiments with various oxide particles over a range of temperatures and airflow rates indicate that particle-wall heat transfer increases with higher bed temperature and decreasing particle size. Measured particle-wall heat transfer coefficients in a 12 mm deep channel are fit to a Nusselt number correlation proportional to a non-monotonic function of excess fluidization velocity. Particle-wall heat transfer coefficients rise rapidly with excess fluidization velocities until reaching a maximum at intermediate air velocities due to a trade-off between enhanced transverse particle mixing and decreasing particle volume fraction with increased fluidization velocity. The heat transfer coefficient reaches a maximum of ≈ 400% of values without fluidization for oxide particles ranging in diameter d p from 159 to 408 μm. For the smallest particles tested, composed of olivine sand, particle-wall heat transfer coefficients peak above 1100 Wm –2 K –1 at 450 °C. 100-h tests at 500 °C and near-optimal heat transfer fluidization velocities indicated minimal wall wear or oxide scaling. Furthermore, high particle-wall heat transfer coefficients suggest narrow channel fluidized beds as a potential pathway for reducing the required surface area and cost of high-temperature particle heat exchangers, as needed in large-scale thermal energy storage applications.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Balancing molecular level influences of intermolecular frustrated Lewis pairs (FLP) for successful design of FLP catalysts for hydrogen storage applications

The rise in energy demands and the deleterious environmental issues related to fossil fuels has led to a surge of interest in hydrogen as a "green" alternative. Hydrogen's extraordinary energy density makes it a potential energy and economic "power"-house. Significant research has been dedicated to materials-based hydrogen storage. One area, liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) is of substantial interest for the reversible transportation of hydrogen from production to end-use facilities. There are challenges associated with this technology including the dependency on precious metal-based catalysts. Recent work in frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) catalysis demonstrates promise for addressing these challenges. Here this review is focused on assessing recent literature on the utilization of intermolecular FLP main group catalysts for improved hydrogenation/dehydrogenation of various substrates including potential LOHC complexes. This review will present an overview of FLPs, highlight potential hydrogen storage applications, and propose areas where knowledge gaps exist that require further investigations.

08 HYDROGEN↗