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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,765 records · Page 98
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2010

Structural Complexity of Layered-spinel Composite Electrodes for Li-ion Batteries

The complexity of layered-spinel yLi{sub 2}MnO{sub 3} {center_dot} (1-y)Li{sub 1+x}Mn{sub 2-x}O{sub 4} (Li:Mn = 1.2:1; 0 = x = 0.33; y = 0.45) composites synthesized at different temperatures has been investigated by a combination of x-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). While the layered component does not change substantially between samples, an evolution of the spinel component from a high to a low lithium excess phase has been traced with temperature by comparing with data for pure Li{sub 1+x}Mn{sub 2-x}O{sub 4}. The changes that occur to the structure of the spinel component and to the average oxidation state of the manganese ions within the composite structure as lithium is electrochemically removed in a battery have been monitored using these techniques, in some cases in situ. Our 6Li NMR results constitute the first direct observation of lithium removal from Li{sub 2}MnO{sub 3} and the formation of LiMnO{sub 2} upon lithium reinsertion.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
NASA NTRS1998

A common network of functional areas for attention and eye movements

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and surface-based representations of brain activity were used to compare the functional anatomy of two tasks, one involving covert shifts of attention to peripheral visual stimuli, the other involving both attentional and saccadic shifts to the same stimuli. Overlapping regional networks in parietal, frontal, and temporal lobes were active in both tasks. This anatomical overlap is consistent with the hypothesis that attentional and oculomotor processes are tightly integrated at the neural level.

Non-NASA Center↗
DOE OSTI2016

Incidence of New Ischaemic Brain Lesions After Carotid Artery Stenting with the Micromesh Roadsaver Carotid Artery Stent: A Prospective Single-Centre Study

AimsSeveral randomized trials of patients with carotid stenosis show increased adverse neurological events with stenting versus endarterectomy in the 30-day post-procedure. This study examines the incidence of new ischaemic lesions in patients treated in our centre using the new Roadsaver stent.Methods and resultsBetween September 2015 and January 2016, 23 consecutive patients (age 74.3 ± 7.3 years, 17.4 % female) underwent carotid artery stenting with the Roadsaver stent, a nitinol double-layer micromesh device. A distal protection device was used in all cases. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging was performed 24 h before, and 24 h and 30 days after the procedure. The 24-h post-procedure imaging showed 15 new ipsilateral ischaemic lesions in 7 (30.4 %) patients: median volume 0.076 cm{sup 3} (interquartile range 0.065–0.146 cm{sup 3}). All lesions were asymptomatic. The 30-day imaging showed complete resolution of all lesions and no new ischaemic lesions. Follow-up clinical and ultrasound examinations at 30 days and 6 months recorded no adverse cardiac or cerebrovascular events.ConclusionsProtected stenting with micromesh Roadsaver stent showed good safety and efficacy in the treatment of carotid stenosis, with a low incidence of delayed embolic events and new ipsilateral ischaemic brain lesions. These preliminary results are encouraging, but need to be confirmed with larger populations.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Structure, Molecular Modification, and Anti-radiation Activity of Melanin from Lachnum YM156 on Ultraviolet B-Induced Injury in Mice

The purpose of this study was to examine the protective effects of intracellular homogeneous melanin produced by Lachnum YM156 (LIM) against ultraviolet B (UVB) induced damage in mice. The possible structural formula of the LIM was concluded based on elemental analysis, ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and mass spectrometry (MS). The LIM was modified by arginine to improve its water solubility and biological activities. LIM and ALIM show significant anti-radiation activity in which LIM and ALIM protect the skin under UV radiation. Results indicate that activities of anti-oxidant enzymes in skin were improved after treatment of LIM or ALIM. In addition, LIM and ALIM inhibited over expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The protection ability of ALIM was higher than that of LIM at the same dose. Thus, applied LIM and ALIM may be a promising radiation-protective agent.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2011

Spectroscopic Investigations of the Fouling Process on Nafion Membranes in Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

The Nafion-117 membrane used in vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The XPS study reveals the chemical identity and environment of vanadium cations accumulated at the surface due to their low diffusivity. On the other hand, the 17O NMR spectrum explores the diffused vanadium cation from the bulk part of Nafion and shows the chemical bonding of cation and the host membrane. The 19F NMR shows the basic Nafion structure is not altered due to the presence of diffused vanadium cation. Based on these spectroscopic studies, the chemical environment of diffused vanadium cation in the Nafion membrane is discussed. This study also shed light into the possible cause for the high diffusivity of certain vanadium cations inside the Nafion membranes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Structural Characterization of Lignins from Willow Bark and Wood

Understanding the chemical structure of lignin in willow bark is an indispensable step to design how to separate its fiber bundles. The whole cell wall and enzyme lignin preparations sequentially isolated from ball-milled bark, inner bark, and wood were comparatively investigated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and three classical degradative methods, i.e., alkaline nitrobenzene oxidation, derivatization followed by reductive cleavage, and analytical thioacidolysis. All results demonstrated that the guaiacyl (G) units were predominant in the willow bark lignin over syringyl (S) and minor p-hydroxyphenyl (H) units. Moreover, the monomer yields and S/G ratio rose progressively from bark to inner bark and wood, indicating that lignin may be more condensed in bark than in other tissues. Additionally, major interunit linkage substructures (β-aryl ethers, phenylcoumarans, and resinols) together with cinnamyl alcohol end groups were relatively quantitated by two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy. Bark and inner bark were rich in pectins and proteins, which were present in large quantities and also in the enzyme lignin preparations.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2011

Ubiquitin in Motion: Structural Studies of the Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzyme~Ubiquitin Conjugate

Ubiquitination of proteins provides a powerful and versatile post-translational signal in the eukaryotic cell. The formation of a thioester bond between ubiquitin (Ub) and the active site of a ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2) is critical for the transfer of Ub to substrates. Assembly of a functional ubiquitin ligase (E3) complex poised for Ub transfer involves recognition and binding of an E2~Ub conjugate. Therefore, full characterization of the structure and dynamics of E2~Ub conjugates is required for further mechanistic understanding of Ub transfer reactions. Here we present characterization of the dynamic behavior of E2~Ub conjugates of two human enzymes, UbcH5c~Ub and Ubc13~Ub, in solution as determined by nuclear magnetic resonance and small-angle X-ray scattering. Within each conjugate, Ub retains great flexibility with respect to the E2, indicative of highly dynamic species that adopt manifold orientations. The population distribution of Ub conformations is dictated by the identity of the E2: the UbcH5c~Ub conjugate populates an array of extended conformations, and the population of Ubc13~Ub conjugates favors a closed conformation in which the hydrophobic surface of Ub faces helix 2 of Ubc13. Finally, we propose that the varied conformations adopted by Ub represent available binding modes of the E2~Ub species and thus provide insight into the diverse E2~Ub protein interactome, particularly with regard to interaction with Ub ligases.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Tau accumulation and atrophy predict amyloid independent cognitive decline in aging

INTRODUCTION: Amyloid beta (Aβ) and tau pathology are cross-sectionally associated with atrophy and cognitive decline in aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: We investigated relationships between concurrent longitudinal measures of Aβ (Pittsburgh compound B [PiB] positron emission tomography [PET]), tau (flortaucipir [FTP] PET), atrophy (structural magnetic resonance imaging), episodic memory (EM), and non-memory (NM) in 78 cognitively healthy older adults (OA). RESULTS: Entorhinal FTP change was correlated with EM decline regardless of Aβ, but meta-temporal FTP and global PiB change were only associated with EM and NM decline in Aβ+ OA. Voxel-wise analyses revealed significant associations between temporal lobe FTP change and EM decline in all groups. PiB and FTP change were not associated with structural change, suggesting a functional or microstructural mechanism linking these measures to cognitive decline. DISCUSSION: Our results show that longitudinal Aβ is linked to cognitive decline only in the presence of elevated Aβ, but longitudinal temporal lobe tau is associated with memory decline regardless of Aβ status.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Synthesis and antitumor activity of cyclic octapeptide, samoamide A, and its derivatives

Using 2-chloro-trityl chloride resin as a solid phase carrier, a linear peptide was synthesized by Fmoc solid phase synthesis followed by liquid phase cyclization. After separation and purification by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), cyclic octapeptide samoamide A was prepared. The synthesis yield was 54.5%. The structure of cyclic octapeptide samoamide A was characterized by electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry. The biological activity was evaluated by the CCK-8 assay and DPP4 enzyme activity inhibition assay. This compound exhibited high antitumor activity. Using samoamide A as a lead compound, eight cyclic octapeptide samoamide A derivatives (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h) were designed and synthesized using the alanine scanning method. The molecular weight and chemical structure of these derivatives were verified by ESI-MS and NMR, and the antitumor activity of the derivatives was analyzed. The antitumor activity of compound f was similar to that of samoamide A, and its replacement site is the non-active site of samoamide A, providing a theoretical basis for further modification and transformation of samoamide A.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

Thermal and Physiochemical Characterization of Lignin Extracted from Wheat Straw by Organosolv Process

The purified lignin extracted from wheat straw by organosolv process was characterized for the existence of lignin subunits, functional groups and physical and thermal behaviours. Presence of carboxyl, hydroxyl, methoxyl groups and C–C, C–O, C=O linkages were conducted by Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR). By {sup 1}H-NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy) presence of aromatic protons, phenolic hydroxyls, carboxylic acids, and aldehydes were established. Moreover, {sup 13}C-NMR spectra have disclosed the presence of condensed and uncondensed aliphatic and aromatic aryls and ethers. The existence of syringyl and guaiacyl units also were confirmed with both FTIR and NMR spectroscopies. Furthermore, the results from Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) showed the weight of extracted lignin is changed in temperatures between 180 and 670 °C by devolatization, formation and condensation of different chemicals. Also, the Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) graph displayed a glass transition temperature of 105 °C for extracted lignin. As a result, the extracted lignin with high purity can be a suitable candidate for carrying out value-added products.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2013

Hydration of Portland cement with additions of calcium sulfoaluminates

The effect of mineral additions based on calcium aluminates on the hydration mechanism of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was investigated using isothermal calorimetry, thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, solid state nuclear magnetic resonance and pore solution analysis. Results show that the addition of a calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA) to the OPC does not affect the hydration mechanism of alite but controls the aluminate dissolution. In the second blend investigated, a rapid setting cement, the amorphous calcium aluminate reacts very fast to ettringite. The release of aluminum ions strongly retards the hydration of alite but the C-S-H has a similar composition as in OPC with no additional Al to Si substitution. As in CSA-OPC, the aluminate hydration is controlled by the availability of sulfates. The coupling of thermodynamic modeling with the kinetic equations predicts the amount of hydrates and pore solution compositions as a function of time and validates the model in these systems.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Recycling of waste automotive laminated glass and valorization of polyvinyl butyral through mechanochemical separation

Due to strong binding, optical clarity, adhesion to many surfaces, toughness and flexibility polyvinyl butyral (PVB) resin films are commonly used in the automotive and architectural application as a protective interlayer in the laminated glass. Worldwide million tons of PVB waste generated from end-of-life automotive associated with various environmental issues. Stringent environmental directive, higher land cost eliminates land filling option, needs a study, we have developed a mechanochemical separation process to separate PVB resins from glass and characterized the separated PVB through various techniques, i.e., scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), infrared spectroscopy (IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). Commercial nonionic surfactants D201 used for the mechanochemical separation purpose. Through parameter optimization following conditions are considered to be the optimum condition; 30 vol% D201, stirring speed of 400 rpm, 35 °C temperature, operation time 1 h, and dilute D201 volume to waste automotive laminated glass weight ratio of ≈25. The technology developed in our laboratory is sustainable, environmentally friendly, techno-economical feasible process, capable of mass production (recycling). - Highlights: • Waste automotive laminated glass and polyvinyl butyral mechanochemically separated. • An economical total recovery and environment-friendly process has been developed. • It is a global problem rather than regional environmental issue has been addressed. • Without using hazardous chemical wastes are being converted to a wealth.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2011

The retinal specific CD147 Ig0 domain: from molecular structure to biological activity

CD147 is a type I transmembrane protein that is involved in inflammatory diseases, cancer progression, and multiple human pathogens utilize CD147 for efficient infection. In several cancers, CD147 expression is so high that it is now used as a prognostic marker. The two primary isoforms of CD147 that are related to cancer progression have been identified, differing in their number of immunoglobulin (Ig)-like domains. These include CD147 Ig1-Ig2 that is ubiquitously expressed in most tissues and CD147 Ig0-Ig1-Ig2 that is retinal specific and implicated in retinoblastoma. However, little is known in regard to the retinal specific CD147 Ig0 domain despite its potential role in retinoblastoma. Thus, here we have extensively characterized the CD147 Ig0 domain by elucidating its three-dimensional structure through crystallography and its solution behavior through several biophysical methods that include nuclear magnetic resonance. Furthermore, we have utilized this data together with mutagenesis to probe the biological activity of CD147-containing proteins both with and without the CD147 Ig0 domain within several model cell lines. Our findings reveal that the CD147 Ig0 domain is a potent stimulator of interleukin-6, which is a well-known contributor to retinoblastoma and suggest that the CD147 Ig0 domain has its own receptor distinct from that of the other CD147 Ig-like domains, CD147 Ig1-Ig2. Furthermore, we show that the CD147 Ig0 dimer is the functional unit required for activity and can be disrupted by a single point mutation.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2010

Striatal dopamine D2 receptor availability predicts the thalamic and medial prefrontal responses to reward in cocaine abusers three years later

Low levels of dopamine (DA) D2 receptor availability at a resting baseline have been previously reported in drug addicted individuals and have been associated with reduced ventral and dorsal prefrontal metabolism. The reduction in DA D2 receptor availability along with the reduced ventral frontal metabolism is thought to underlie compromised sensitivity to nondrug reward, a core characteristic of drug addiction. We therefore hypothesized that variability in DA D2 receptor availability at baseline will covary with dynamic responses to monetary reward in addicted individuals. Striatal DA D2 receptor availability was measured with [{sup 11}C]raclopride and positron emission tomography and response to monetary reward was measured (an average of three years later) with functional magnetic resonance imaging in seven cocaine-addicted individuals. Results show that low DA D2 receptor availability in the dorsal striatum was associated with decreased thalamic response to monetary reward; while low availability in ventral striatum was associated with increased medial prefrontal (Brodmann Area 6/8/32) response to monetary reward. These preliminary results, that need to be replicated in larger sample sizes and validated with healthy controls, suggest that resting striatal DA D2 receptor availability predicts variability in functional responses to a nondrug reinforcer (money) in prefrontal cortex, implicated in behavioral monitoring, and in thalamus, implicated in conditioned responses and expectation, in cocaine-addicted individuals.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Novel Biocide Based on Cationic Derivative of Psyllium: Surface Modification and Antibacterial Activity

To circumvent the problems (such as volatilization, photolytic decomposition, chemical instability, easy permeability through the skin) associated with low molecular weight antimicrobial agents, our strategy employed graft copolymerization of cationic monomer with the polymeric substrate viz. psyllium husk. The surface graft concentration of quaternary ammonium ion on psyllium was optimized by measuring the extent of grafting in the microwave-induced process. The surface modification of graft copolymers was evident by different physico–chemical techniques like {sup 13}C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Thermo gravimeteric analysis (TGA), and viscometric study. The synthesized water soluble product resulted good antibacterial activity against Gram positive Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus anthracis but failed to produce any antibacterial activity against Gram negative Salmonella typhi and Escherichia coli. The reason to failure has been explained on the basis of differences in the electrokinetic property between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Optimum minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the polymeric grade which showed good biocidal effect evaluated by both zone of inhibition and absorbance is found at 1000 µg/ml.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2013

Calorimetric, spectroscopic and structural investigations of phase polymorphism in [Ru(NH{sub 3}){sub 6}](BF{sub 4}){sub 3}. Part I

Four crystalline phases of the coordination compound [Ru(NH{sub 3}){sub 6}](BF{sub 4}){sub 3} are identified by adiabatic calorimetry. Three phase transitions, one at T{sub C3}(IV{yields}III)=30.7 K, the second at T{sub C2}(III{yields}II)=91.7 K (both accompanied by comparable entropy changes 3.0 and 3.1 J K{sup -1} mol{sup -1}, respectively) and the third at T{sub C1}(II{yields}I)=241.6 K (accompanied by an entropy change of 8.1 J K{sup -1} mol{sup -1}) were discovered. X-ray single crystal diffraction (at 293 K) demonstrates that phase I is a highly dynamic disordered cubic phase (Fm3{sup Macron }m, No. 225) with two types of BF{sub 4}{sup -} anions differing in a degree of disorder. In phase II (at 170 K) the structure remains cubic (Ia3{sup Macron }, No. 206), with two different types of cations and four different types of anions. Splitting of certain IR bands connected with NH{sub 3} ligands at the observed phase transitions suggests a lowering of the symmetry of the [Ru(NH{sub 3}){sub 6}]{sup 3+} complex cation. Both NH{sub 3} ligands and BF{sub 4}{sup -} anions perform fast reorientations ({tau}{sub R} Almost-Equal-To 10{sup -12} s), which are significantly slowed down below the phase transition at T{sub C3}. {sup 1}H NMR studies led to estimate the values of the activation energy of NH{sub 3} ligands reorientation in the phases II and I as equal to {approx}8 kJ mol{sup -1}. In phase I the whole hexammineruthenium(III) cations reorientation as a tumbling process can be noticed. The activation energy value of this motion is {approx}24 kJ mol{sup -1}. {sup 19}F NMR studies give the values of the activation energy of BF{sub 4}{sup -} anions reorientation as {approx}6 kJ mol{sup -1}. Above the phase transition temperature half of BF{sub 4}{sup -} anions perform a tumbling motion with E{sub a} Almost-Equal-To 8 kJ mol{sup -1}. - Graphical abstract: A series of complementary methods, such as Adiabatic Calorimetry, Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Fourier Transform-Far and Middle Spectroscopy, proton and fluorine Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and structural methods reveal information about phase transitions in [Ru(NH{sub 3}){sub 6}](BF{sub 4}){sub 3}. Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Three novel phase transitions are found in [Ru(NH{sub 3}){sub 6}](BF{sub 4}){sub 3}. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer The thermodynamic parameters of the phase transitions are derived. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer The transitions are of order-disorder type. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer The complex belongs to Fm3{sup Macron }m at 293 K and its symmetry changes to Ia3{sup Macron} at 170 K. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer [Ru(NH{sub 3}){sub 6}](BF{sub 4}){sub 3} is a highly dynamically disordered crystal.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Characterization of Tc-99 Speciation and Chemical Composition of 241-AN-102 Tank Waste Supernatant - 19201

Technetium (Tc) in its isotopic form {sup 99}Tc is generated in high yields from the fission of {sup 235}U and {sup 239}Pu. A significant inventory of {sup 99}Tc remains at the U.S. Department of Energy's Hanford Site, and it is one of the most difficult contaminants to address. In the strongly alkaline solutions that are typical of Hanford tank waste, Tc exists as both pertechnetate (TcO{sub 4}{sup -} in oxidation state VII) and in reduced forms (oxidation state <VII) collectively known as non-pertechnetate species. Pertechnetate is a well-characterized anionic Tc species that can be removed from low-activity waste by anion exchange or other methods. There is no definitive information on the origin or a comprehensive description of the non-pertechnetate species in Hanford tanks. Designing strategies for effective management of Tc, including separation and immobilization, requires an understanding of the molecular structure of the non-pertechnetate species and their identification in actual tank waste samples. Developing this advanced understanding would facilitate development of new technologies for treating dissimilar Tc species. Toward this objective, a spectroscopic library of the Tc(I) [fac-Tc(CO){sub 3}]{sup +} and Tc(IV, VI, VII) compounds was generated using a range of techniques and applied to the characterization of actual 241-AN-102 tank waste supernatant. A sample of the 241-AN-102 tank waste (collected in 2013) was processed to remove {sup 137}Cs by spherical resorcinol-formaldehyde (sRF) ion exchange resin after the sodium concentration was adjusted to 5.6 M. The Cs-loaded sRF column was eluted with 0.45 M HNO{sub 3}. As-received AN-102, Cs-depleted AN-102 effluent, and sRF eluate fractions were comprehensively characterized for chemical composition and speciation of Tc using {sup 99}Tc nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The results of these analyses demonstrated for the first time that non-pertechnetate Tc present in the 241-AN-102 tank waste is composed of several low-valent Tc species, including the Tc(I) [fac-Tc(CO){sub 3}L{sub 3}]{sup +}, Tc(IV), and possibly Tc(VI) compounds. This is the second experimental observation of the [fac-Tc(CO){sub 3}L{sub 3}]{sup +} species in the Hanford tank waste that highlights their importance for waste processing. In addition, the chemical composition of the 241-AN-102 tank waste was characterized with the focus on small chelators. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Pore-size resolved water vapor adsorption kinetics of white cement mortars as viewed from proton NMR relaxation

The dynamic pore structure of partially saturated cement-based material is rather essential to quantify its mass transport and many other properties. To clarify the influence of water removal and re-entry, the low-field nuclear magnetic resonance technique is employed to characterize the pore structure of two white cement mortars during isopropanol exchange and water vapor adsorption kinetics. It is found that, after isopropanol replacement the pore structures of mortars become remarkably coarsen due to the significant collapse of C-S-H interlayer pores, which are only partly reversible at water re-saturation. Consistently, water vapor adsorption is not a simple progressively filling process from finer to coarser pores, but accompanied by continuous expansion of C-S-H gel adsorbing water in priority. Furthermore, the irrecoverable contraction of C-S-H gel is the physical root of irreversible shrinkage. The smaller BET surface area using nitrogen than water is also attributed to the collapse of interlayer pores after drying.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗