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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1998

Geometry Modeling and Grid Generation for Design and Optimization

Geometry modeling and grid generation (GMGG) have played and will continue to play an important role in computational aerosciences. During the past two decades, tremendous progress has occurred in GMGG; however, GMGG is still the biggest bottleneck to routine applications for complicated Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Computational Structures Mechanics (CSM) models for analysis, design, and optimization. We are still far from incorporating GMGG tools in a design and optimization environment for complicated configurations. It is still a challenging task to parameterize an existing model in today's Computer-Aided Design (CAD) systems, and the models created are not always good enough for automatic grid generation tools. Designers may believe their models are complete and accurate, but unseen imperfections (e.g., gaps, unwanted wiggles, free edges, slivers, and transition cracks) often cause problems in gridding for CSM and CFD. Despite many advances in grid generation, the process is still the most labor-intensive and time-consuming part of the computational aerosciences for analysis, design, and optimization. In an ideal design environment, a design engineer would use a parametric model to evaluate alternative designs effortlessly and optimize an existing design for a new set of design objectives and constraints. For this ideal environment to be realized, the GMGG tools must have the following characteristics: (1) be automated, (2) provide consistent geometry across all disciplines, (3) be parametric, and (4) provide sensitivity derivatives. This paper will review the status of GMGG for analysis, design, and optimization processes, and it will focus on some emerging ideas that will advance the GMGG toward the ideal design environment.

Samareh, Jamshid A.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Multilevel Convergence Analysis of Multigrid-Reduction-in-Time

This study presents a multilevel convergence framework for multigrid-reduction-in-time (MGRIT) as a generalization of previous two-grid estimates. The framework provides a priori upper bounds on the convergence of MGRIT V- and F-cycles, with different relaxation schemes, by deriving the respective residual and error propagation operators. The residual and error operators are functions of the time-stepping operator, analyzed directly and bounded in the norm, both numerically and analytically. We present various upper bounds of different computational cost and varying sharpness. These upper bounds are complemented by proposing analytic formulae for the approximate convergence factor of V-cycle algorithms that take the number of fine grid time points, the temporal coarsening factors, and the eigenvalues of the time-stepping operator as parameters. The paper concludes with supporting numerical investigations of parabolic (anisotropic diffusion) and hyperbolic (wave equation) model problems. We assess the sharpness of the bounds and the quality of the approximate convergence factors. Observations from these numerical investigations demonstrate the value of the proposed multilevel convergence framework for estimating MGRIT convergence a priori and for the design of a convergent algorithm. We further highlight that observations in the literature are captured by the theory, including that two-level Parareal and multilevel MGRIT with F-relaxation do not yield scalable algorithms and the benefit of a stronger relaxation scheme. An important observation is that with increasing numbers of levels MGRIT convergence deteriorates for the hyperbolic model problem, while constant convergence factors can be achieved for the diffusion equation. The theory also indicates that L-stable Runge--Kutta schemes are more amendable to multilevel parallel-in-time integration with MGRIT than A-stable Runge--Kutta schemes.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Climatology and Extreme Value Analysis of Large Hail in China

In this paper, hail size records are analyzed at 2254 stations in China and a hail size climatology is developed based on gridded hail observations for the period 1960–2015. It is found that the annual percentiles of hail size records changed sharply and national-wide after 1980, therefore two periods, 1960–79 and 1980–2015, are studied. There are some similarities between the two periods in terms of the characteristics of hail size such as the spatial distribution patterns of mean annual maximum hail size and occurrence week of annual maximum hail size. The 1980–2015 period had higher observation density than the 1960–79 period, but showed smaller mean annual maximum hail size, especially in northern China. In the majority of grid boxes, the annual maximum hail size experienced a decreasing trend during the 1980–2015 period. A Gumbel extreme value model is fitted to each grid box to estimate the return periods of maximum hail size. The scale and location parameter of the fitted Gumbel distributions are higher in eastern China than in western China, thereby reflecting a greater likelihood of large hail in eastern China. In southern China, the maximum hail size exceeds 127 mm for a 10-yr return period, whereas in northern China maximum hail size exceeds this threshold for a 50-yr return period. Furthermore, the Gumbel model is found to potentially underestimate the maximum hail size for certain return periods, but provides a more informed picture of the spatial distribution of extreme hail size and the regional differences.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Maximising the investment returns of a grid‐connected battery considering degradation cost

Energy storage systems (ESSs) are being deployed widely due to numerous benefits including operational flexibility, high ramping capability, and decreasing costs. This study investigates the economic benefits provided by battery ESSs when they are deployed for market‐related applications, considering the battery degradation cost. A comprehensive investment planning framework is presented, which estimates the maximum revenue that the ESS can generate over its lifetime and provides the necessary tools to investors for aiding the decision making process regarding an ESS project. The applications chosen for this study are energy arbitrage and frequency regulation. Lithium‐ion batteries are considered due to their wide popularity arising from high efficiency, high energy density, and declining costs. A new degradation cost model based on energy throughput and cycle count is developed for Lithium‐ion batteries participating in electricity markets. The lifetime revenue of ESS is calculated considering battery degradation and a cost–benefit analysis is performed to provide investors with an estimate of the net present value, return on investment and payback period. The effect of considering the degradation cost on the estimated revenue is also studied. The proposed approach is demonstrated on the IEEE Reliability Test System and historical data from PJM Interconnection.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Aerosol Particle Deposition on a Spent Nuclear Fuel Assembly Spacer Grid

The flow and particle deposition patterns on surfaces in an idealized spacer grid for a 17x17 pressurized water reactor (PWR) assembly in a spent fuel canister are modeled using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) with laminar flow. The effects of gravitational settling, non-Stokesian flow, and particle slip are first rigorously analyzed. From the analysis, non-Stokesian effects and slip may be neglected for the particle sizes and conditions expected in a canister. For particles that do not settle out, a swirling flow pattern at the corners of a spacer grid channel directs particles to the leeward side of the flow vanes where much of the deposition occurs. Particle deposition increases with increasing particle diameter. Deposition also increases with decreasing flow velocity as this provides more time for particles to settle and deposit on the leeward side of the flow vanes. The fraction of particles that are transmitted through a spacer grid is determined as a function of inlet gas velocity and particle diameter by running the CFD calculation for each set of conditions and for each particle diameter. Curve fits of the transmission curve as a function of particle diameter for a specified spacer grid and flow velocity are applied to a lognormal particle mass density function for the inlet particles. The resulting mass density function and aerosol mass fraction that passes through the spacer grid can be determined analytically without resorting to numerical iteration. A sample calculation of the analytical solution is demonstrated for a lognormal particle mass density function.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Generating Sequential PV Deployment Scenarios for High Renewable Distribution Grid Planning

This paper introduces a novel approach for generating solar photovoltaic (PV) plant deployment scenarios for grid integration planning. The approach guarantees consistency among scenarios of the same deployment by ensuring that higher penetration scenarios contain PV units deployed in lower penetration scenarios. It also constrains the size and spatial distribution of the PV plants and considers three placement types. A case study on a real-world distribution system proves that the precepts of scenario consistency, deployment diversity, and placement are met. The study further investigates the impact of the resulting scenarios via a stochastic hosting capacity analysis. Results indicate that the ratio between PV and load sizes, referred to as the nodal PV penetration factor (NPPF), is a key driver of the grid integration impact. By reducing the NPPF from 5 to 2, the maximum hosting capacity increased by at least 112%. The study also reveals that scenarios under random placement can lead to higher hosting capacity values.

ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY,SOLAR ENERGY↗
NASA NTRS2007

Persistent Nature of Secondary Diurnal Modes of Precipitation over Oceanic and Continental Regimes

This investigation seeks a better understanding of the assorted mechanisms controlling the global distribution of precipitation diurnal variability based on the use of Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) microwave radiometer and radar data. The horizontal distributions of precipitation's diurnal cycle are derived from eight years of TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) and Precipitation Radar (PR) measurements involving three TRMM standard rain rate retrieval algorithms -- the resultant distributions analyzed at various spatiotemporal scales. The results reveal the prominent and expected late-evening to early-morning (LE-EM) precipitation maxima over oceans and the counterpart prominent and expected mid- to late-afternoon (MLA) maxima over continents. Moreover, and not generally recognized, the results reveal a widespread distribution of secondary maxima occurring over both oceans and continents -- maxima which generally mirror their counterpart regime's behavior. That is, many ocean regions exhibit clearcut secondary MLA precipitation maxima while many continental regions exhibit just as evident secondary LE-EM maxima. This investigation is the first comprehensive study of these globally prevalent secondary maxima and their widespread nature, a type of study only made possible when the analysis procedure is applied to a high-quality global-scale precipitation dataset. The characteristics of the secondary maxima are mapped and described on global grids using an innovative clock-face format, while a current study to be published at a later date provides physically-based explanations of the seasonal-regional distributions of the secondary maxima. In addition to an "explicit" maxima identification scheme, a "Fourier decomposition" maxima identification scheme is used to examine the amplitude and phase properties of the primary and secondary maxima -- as well as tertiary and quaternary maxima. Accordingly, the advantages, ambiguities, and pitfalls resulting from use of Fourier harmonic analysis are explained.

Yang, S.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Generating Sequential PV Deployment Scenarios for High Renewable Distribution Grid Planning: Preprint

This paper introduces a novel approach for generating solar photovoltaic (PV) plant deployment scenarios for grid integration planning. The approach guarantees consistency among scenarios of the same deployment by ensuring that higher penetration scenarios contain PV units deployed in lower penetration scenarios. It also constrains the size and spatial distribution of the PV plants and considers three placement types. A case study on a real-world distribution system proves that the precepts of scenario consistency, deployment diversity, and placement are met. The study further investigates the impact of the resulting scenarios via a stochastic hosting capacity analysis. Results indicate that the ratio between PV and load sizes, referred to as the nodal PV penetration factor (NPPF), is a key driver of the grid integration impact. By reducing the NPPF from 5 to 2, the maximum hosting capacity increased by at least 112%. The study also reveals that scenarios under random placement can lead to higher hosting capacity values.

ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY,SOLAR ENERGY↗
NASA NTRS1996

Large-Eddy Simulation of Turbulent Wall-Pressure Fluctuations

Large-eddy simulations of a turbulent boundary layer with Reynolds number based on displacement thickness equal to 3500 were performed with two grid resolutions. The computations were continued for sufficient time to obtain frequency spectra with resolved frequencies that correspond to the most important structural frequencies on an aircraft fuselage. The turbulent stresses were adequately resolved with both resolutions. Detailed quantitative analysis of a variety of statistical quantities associated with the wall-pressure fluctuations revealed similar behavior for both simulations. The primary differences were associated with the lack of resolution of the high-frequency data in the coarse-grid calculation and the increased jitter (due to the lack of multiple realizations for averaging purposes) in the fine-grid calculation. A new curve fit was introduced to represent the spanwise coherence of the cross-spectral density.

Singer, Bart A.↗
NASA NTRS2018

GMI-IPS: Python Processing Software for Aircraft Campaigns

NASA's Atmospheric Tomography Mission (ATom) seeks to understand the impact of anthropogenic air pollution on gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Four flight campaigns are being deployed on a seasonal basis to establish a continuous global-scale data set intended to improve the representation of chemically reactive gases in global atmospheric chemistry models. The Global Modeling Initiative (GMI), is creating chemical transport simulations on a global scale for each of the ATom flight campaigns. To meet the computational demands required to translate the GMI simulation data to grids associated with the flights from the ATom campaigns, the GMI ICARTT Processing Software (GMI-IPS) has been developed and is providing key functionality for data processing and analysis in this ongoing effort. The GMI-IPS is written in Python and provides computational kernels for data interpolation and visualization tasks on GMI simulation data. A key feature of the GMI-IPS, is its ability to read ICARTT files, a text-based file format for airborne instrument data, and extract the required flight information that defines regional and temporal grid parameters associated with an ATom flight. Perhaps most importantly, the GMI-IPS creates ICARTT files containing GMI simulated data, which are used in collaboration with ATom instrument teams and other modeling groups. The initial main task of the GMI-IPS is to interpolate GMI model data to the finer temporal resolution (1-10 seconds) of a given flight. The model data includes basic fields such as temperature and pressure, but the main focus of this effort is to provide species concentrations of chemical gases for ATom flights. The software, which uses parallel computation techniques for data intensive tasks, linearly interpolates each of the model fields to the time resolution of the flight. The temporally interpolated data is then saved to disk, and is used to create additional derived quantities. In order to translate the GMI model data to the spatial grid of the flight path as defined by the pressure, latitude, and longitude points at each flight time record, a weighted average is then calculated from the nearest neighbors in two dimensions (latitude, longitude). Using SciPya's Regular Grid Interpolator, interpolation functions are generated for the GMI model grid and the calculated weighted averages. The flight path points are then extracted from the ATom ICARTT instrument file, and are sent to the multi-dimensional interpolating functions to generate GMI field quantities along the spatial path of the flight. The interpolated field quantities are then written to a ICARTT data file, which is stored for further manipulation. The GMI-IPS is aware of a generic ATom ICARTT header format, containing basic information for all flight campaigns. The GMI-IPS includes logic to edit metadata for the derived field quantities, as well as modify the generic header data such as processing dates and associated instrument files. The ICARTT interpolated data is then appended to the modified header data, and the ICARTT processing is complete for the given flight and ready for collaboration. The output ICARTT data adheres to the ICARTT file format standards V1.1. The visualization component of the GMI-IPS uses Matplotlib extensively and has several functions ranging in complexity. First, it creates a model background curtain for the flight (time versus model eta levels) with the interpolated flight data superimposed on the curtain. Secondly, it creates a time-series plot of the interpolated flight data. Lastly, the visualization component creates averaged 2D model slices (longitude versus latitude) with overlaid flight track circles at key pressure levels. The GMI-IPS consists of a handful of classes and supporting functionality that have been generalized to be compatible with any ICARTT file that adheres to the base class definition. The base class represents a generic ICARTT entry, only defining a single time entry and 3D spatial positioning parameters. Other classes inherit from this base class; several classes for input ICARTT instrument files, which contain the necessary flight positioning information as a basis for data processing, as well as other classes for output ICARTT files, which contain the interpolated model data. Utility classes provide functionality for routine procedures such as: comparing field names among ICARTT files, reading ICARTT entries from a data file and storing them in data structures, and returning a reduced spatial grid based on a collection of ICARTT entries. Although the GMI-IPS is compatible with GMI model data, it can be adapted with reasonable effort for any simulation that creates Hierarchical Data Format (HDF) files. The same can be said of its adaptability to ICARTT files outside of the context of the ATom mission. The GMI-IPS contains just under 30,000 lines of code, eight classes, and a dozen drivers and utility programs. It is maintained with GIT source code management and has been used to deliver processed GMI model data for the ATom campaigns that have taken place to date.

Damon, M. R.↗
NASA NTRS1995

Navier-Stokes Aerodynamic Simulation of the V-22 Osprey on the Intel Paragon MPP

The paper will describe the Development of a general three-dimensional multiple grid zone Navier-Stokes flowfield simulation program (ENS3D-MPP) designed for efficient execution on the Intel Paragon Massively Parallel Processor (MPP) supercomputer, and the subsequent application of this method to the prediction of the viscous flowfield about the V-22 Osprey tiltrotor vehicle. The flowfield simulation code solves the thin Layer or full Navier-Stoke's equation - for viscous flow modeling, or the Euler equations for inviscid flow modeling on a structured multi-zone mesh. In the present paper only viscous simulations will be shown. The governing difference equations are solved using a time marching implicit approximate factorization method with either TVD upwind or central differencing used for the convective terms and central differencing used for the viscous diffusion terms. Steady state or Lime accurate solutions can be calculated. The present paper will focus on steady state applications, although time accurate solution analysis is the ultimate goal of this effort. Laminar viscosity is calculated using Sutherland's law and the Baldwin-Lomax two layer algebraic turbulence model is used to compute the eddy viscosity. The Simulation method uses an arbitrary block, curvilinear grid topology. An automatic grid adaption scheme is incorporated which concentrates grid points in high density gradient regions. A variety of user-specified boundary conditions are available. This paper will present the application of the scalable and superscalable versions to the steady state viscous flow analysis of the V-22 Osprey using a multiple zone global mesh. The mesh consists of a series of sheared cartesian grid blocks with polar grids embedded within to better simulate the wing tip mounted nacelle. MPP solutions will be shown in comparison to equivalent Cray C-90 results and also in comparison to experimental data. Discussions on meshing considerations, wall clock execution time, load balancing, and scalability will be provided.

Vadyak, Joseph↗
DOE OSTI2022

SCALE modeling of foil irradiations at WSU’s TRIGA with sensitivity/uncertainty analysis

We report the Washington State University TRIGA reactor was modeled in the SCALE system’s KENO neutron transport code. The model includes 119 fuel rods, a central boral control rod, 4 control blades, 5 irradiation ports, and 20 graphite reflector blocks within a rectangular aluminum grid box. The model accurately simulated the irradiation of depleted uranium and highly enriched uranium foils and predicted reaction rate ratios for 238 U(n,2n) 237 U / 238 U(n,γ) 239 U and 99 Mo / fission, which compared favorably to empirical values previously measured at Los Alamos. Finally, a sensitivity/uncertainty analysis was performed using the continuous-energy TSUNAMI-3D module of SCALE.

237Np↗
DOE OSTI2021

Acquire and Test IDAES Framework Components

The cooperation under the Grid Modernization Initiative and the Applied Energy Tri-Laboratory umbrellas requires mutual understanding of capabilities and a common effort to identify gaps existing in the available computational modeling and analysis tools. In this work, we report acquisition and testing of the National Energy Technology Laboratory’s Institute for the Design of Advanced Energy Systems (IDAES) framework, particularly including both electric power systems production cost model simulator Prescient as well as system optimization IDAES itself. Further, we consider the methods in which developments in Prescient and IDAES for grid-energy simulation and optimization may be included in the Framework for Optimization of ResourCes and Economics (FORCE) ecosystem that has been under collaborative development by Idaho National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. We propose two integration methods to introduce Prescient and IDAES into existing FORCE automated workflows. One integration involves using Prescient as a market reduced-order model and IDAES models similar to how existing Modelica models are used. The other integration involves wrapping the Prescient-IDAES dispatch optimization process with the stochastic capacity optimization workflow in FORCE.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Search for the decay B s 0 → π 0 π 0 at Belle

We report the results of the first search for the decay B$^{0}_{s}$ → π 0 ⁢π 0 using 121.4 fb -1 of data collected at the Y⁡(5⁢S) resonance with the Belle detector at the KEKB asymmetric-energy e + ⁢e - collider. We observe no signal and set a 90% confidence level upper limit of 7.7 ×10 -6 on the B$^{0}_{s}$ → π 0 π 0 decay branching fraction.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Novel Framework to Quantify Power Grid Resilience

The quantification of an operating power grid’s resilience is highly significant today, given its criticality as an enabler of other infrastructures, complexity, and the threat it faces due to a wide range of detrimental events, from extreme climate to cyber attacks. Currently, there exist no standardized definitions and metrics for measuring the resilience of an operating grid. In this paper, we introduce a novel resilience quantification framework and demonstrate a method to measure the flexibility towards topological/structural changes due to potential failures in the power grid to assess operational resilience. We start with the state estimation data from a large utility and use the graph analysis methods and power flow simulation tools to compute the identified resilience parameters.

Yoginath, Srikanth↗
DOE OSTI2020

The arbitrary-order virtual element method for linear elastodynamics models. Convergence, stability and dispersion-dissipation analysis.

We design the conforming virtual element method for the numerical approximation of the two dimensional elastodynamics problem. We prove stability and convergence of the semi-discrete approximation and derive optimal error estimates under $\textit{h}$-refinement in both the energy and the $L^2$ norms, and optimal error estimates under $\textit{p}$-refinement in the energy norm. The performance of the proposed virtual element method is assessed on a set of different computational meshes, including non-convex cells up to order four in the h-refinement setting. Exponential convergence is also experimentally observed under p-refinement. Finally, we present a dispersion-dissipation analysis for both the semi-discrete and fully-discrete schemes, showing that polygonal meshes behave as classical simplicial/quadrilateral grids in terms of dispersion-dissipation properties.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Foundations of an Electric Mobility Strategy for the City of Mexicali

The Foundations of an Electric Mobility Strategy for the city of Mexicali aligns with numerous energy, environmental, and transport plans and will help Mexicali meet multiple related goals. Mexicali’s energy mix, with 28% renewables, already enables plugin electric vehicles (PEVs) to reduce the mass of greenhouse gases (GHGs) per km driven 2/3 below that of their conventional counterparts. This GHG benefit will increase should Mexicali take steps to further increase their share of renewables in their electricity supply. Beyond increasing renewables, Mexicali could possibly deploy PEVs so that electric load is added in the right location (depending on further analysis of substations and feeders) and at the right time (between 21:00 and 11:00) in order to minimize grid upgrade costs. There are a handful of charge timing control mechanisms –at various stages of development– that Mexicali could implement. Transport electrification can facilitate mass transit by powering buses, trains, and small vehicles that get people from their homes or work to the transit stations and vice versa. Mexicali could utilize fleets as early PEV adopters in order to gain acceptance and add electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE). Recommended prioritization of different types of fleets are suggested in this report: transit buses, school buses, airport ground support equipment (GSE), refuse trucks, taxis, shuttle buses, campus vehicles, delivery trucks, utility trucks, and finally semitrailers. There are a handful of policy options that Mexicali could use to incentivize fleets to purchase PEVs, including mandates, economic incentives, energy performance contracts, waivers to access restrictions, electricity discounts, and EVSE requirements in building codes. Mexicali’s taxi fleet was an early adopter of PEVs and had experienced some challenges—mostly related to the insufficient range of the taxis due to hot weather. In this report, we strategize ways to extend the range of the current electric taxis, including ways to make charging more convenient to the drivers, and more suggestions for appropriate vehicles to purchase in the future. This report also includes the groundwork of geotracking Mexicali’s taxi fleet so that more detailed recommendations can be made in the future. Once fleets have increased PEV acceptance and EVSE installations, the market will be ready to expand to private vehicle owners. In order to do this, more EVSE needs to be installed in the right locations. This mobility strategy lays out general local areas where EVSE could be well utilized, based on traffic patterns, land use, and demographic data. Mexicali could approach businesses within these areas that would likely make suitable hosts, based on how well they can profit from the additional business that EVSE would bring. Mexicali could then adopt a series of purchase incentives (including sales tax waivers or access to high-occupancy vehicles [HOV] lanes) that would encourage private vehicle owners to purchase PEVs. Purchase incentives run the risk of creating equity issues, which can be countered by promoting electrification in mass transit, creating more HOV lanes that have PEV exemptions, and installing EVSEs in underserved communities. Private PEV ownership will require a set of experts that Mexicali can help train, including PEV repair technicians, EVSE installation electricians, and first responders.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Energy Storage in South Asia: Understanding the Role of Grid-Connected Energy Storage in South Asia’s Power Sector Transformation

During the last decade, the cost of energy storage technologies, primarily lithium-ion battery energy storage systems (BESS), has declined rapidly and is projected to decline further over the next decade. This study provides a first-of-its-kind assessment of cost-effective opportunities for grid-scale energy storage deployment in South Asia both in the near term and the long term, including a detailed analysis of energy storage drivers, potential barriers, and the role of energy storage in system operations. We conduct scenarios-based capacity expansion modeling to assess when, where and how much energy storage can be cost-effectively deployed in India through 2050. The analysis relies on state-of-the-art modeling approaches to uncover and compare the value streams of battery storage with different durations as well as pumped storage hydropower. We also run hourly simulations of system operations in 2030 and 2050 to understand how energy storage will be utilized by system operators to help integrate RE and reduce operating costs. For Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal, we use operational simulations to explore how increasing deployment of energy storage can help optimize the use of domestic resources and cross-border electricity trade.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗