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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2015

Two-dimensional semiconductor HfSe{sub 2} and MoSe{sub 2}/HfSe{sub 2} van der Waals heterostructures by molecular beam epitaxy

Using molecular beam epitaxy, atomically thin 2D semiconductor HfSe{sub 2} and MoSe{sub 2}/HfSe{sub 2} van der Waals heterostructures are grown on AlN(0001)/Si(111) substrates. Details of the electronic band structure of HfSe{sub 2} are imaged by in-situ angle resolved photoelectron spectroscopy indicating a high quality epitaxial layer. High-resolution surface tunneling microscopy supported by first principles calculations provides evidence of an ordered Se adlayer, which may be responsible for a reduction of the measured workfunction of HfSe{sub 2} compared to theoretical predictions. The latter reduction minimizes the workfunction difference between the HfSe{sub 2} and MoSe{sub 2} layers resulting in a small valence band offset of only 0.13 eV at the MoSe{sub 2}/HfSe{sub 2} heterointerface and a weak type II band alignment.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2024

Real World Use Case Evaluation of Radar Retro-reflectors for Autonomous Vehicle Lane Detection Applications

Lane detection plays a critical role in autonomous vehicles for safe and reliable navigation. Lane detection is traditionally accomplished using a camera sensor and computer vision processing. The downside of this traditional technique is that it can be computationally intensive when high quality images at a fast frame rate are used and has reliability issues from occlusion such as, glare, shadows, active road construction, and more. This study addresses these issues by exploring alternative methods for lane detection in specific scenarios caused from road construction-induced lane shift and sun glare. Specifically, a U-Net, a convolutional network used for image segmentation, camera-based lane detection method is compared with a radar-based approach using a new type of sensor previously unused in the autonomous vehicle space: radar retro-reflectors. This evaluation is performed using ground truth data, obtained by measuring the lane positions and transforming them into pixel coordinates. The performance of each method is assessed using the statistical R2 score, indicating the correlation between the detected lane lines and the ground truth. The results show that the U-Net camera-based method exhibits limitations in accurately detecting and aligning the lane lines, particularly in challenging scenarios. However, the radar-based lane detection method demonstrates a strong correlation with the ground truth which implies that the use of this sensor may improve current reliability issues from conventional camera lane detection approach. Furthermore, the study highlights the limitations of the U-Net model for camera lane detection, especially in scenarios with sun glare. This study shows that infrastructure-based radar retro-reflectors can improve autonomous vehicle lane detection reliability. The integration of different sensor modalities and the development of advanced computer vision algorithms are crucial for improving the accuracy, reliability, and energy efficiency of lane detection systems. Addressing these challenges contributes to the advancement of autonomous vehicles and the realization of safer and more efficient transportation systems.

Brown, Nicolas E.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Tidal distortions in pairs of early-type galaxies

The authors are conducting an imaging survey of pairs of elliptical galaxies which has already produced interesting results. Some pairs present a common pattern of distortion interpreted in terms of tidal effects (Davoust and Prugniel, 1988; Prugniel et al., 1989). Other examples drawn from the literature (Borne and Hoessel, 1988; Colina and Perez-Fournon, 1990) share the same morphology. New cases and lists of the characteristics of 24 such systems. The authors' pairs are drawn from a sample of binary and multiple galaxies which has in turn been extracted from the CGCG, UGC (Nilson, 1973) and VV (Vorontsov-Velyaminov, 1959) catalogues. This sample includes that of Karachentsev (1972). It contains 1800 pairs, among which 700 are S - S or mixed morphology pairs. The authors are working on the remainder to produce a sample of close physical pairs of elliptical galaxies (they also include bulge dominated SO's since the morphological discrimination from ellipticals is often ambiguous, in particular for interacting galaxies). One of the interests of this work is to provide a sample selected on purely optical criteria, at variance with other works (e.g., Valentijn and Casertano, 1988). This will allow statistical studies of non-optical properties of these pairs (in particular radio emission). The authors have so far obtained charge-coupled device (CCD) images of 125 pairs with a 2m telescope and velocities' differences of 78 pairs were obtained using the 1.93 meter telescope of Observatoire de Haute Provence and from the literature. One is an optical pair (VV 190). Eighteen of our pairs present the morphological effect described in Davoust and Prugniel (1988): the external parts of each member are stretched in opposite senses in a direction rougly perpendicular to the pair axis. The proportion of 15 plus or minus 4 percent distorted pairs confirms previous estimates. Except for a few cases involving flattened galaxies with nearly aligned major axes which deserve careful detailed analysis (Prugniel, 1989), the apparent distortions do correspond to physical distortions. We have searched the literature for isophote maps showing this effect. In the survey of radio galaxies by Colina and Perez-Fournon (1990), 7 out of 20 pairs show this characteristic distortion.

Prugniel, Philippe↗
NASA NTRS1980

Einstein observations of active galaxies

X-ray observations of Cen A (NGC 5128) and seven other X-ray emitting active galaxies are discussed which were made with the imaging proportional counter and the high-resolution imager aboard the Einstein Observatory. In addition to Cen A, the sources observed were the N-type galaxy 3C 120, the quasars OX 169 and 3C 273, and four Class 1 Seyfert galaxies, viz., Mkn 509, Mkn 79, NGC 6814, and NGC 4151. For Cen A, it is found that the X-ray data are dominated by a central point source of about 2 cts/sec, that X-ray elongations (possibly associated with the inner radio lobes) extend in the NE and SW directions, and that an X-ray jet exists which is aligned with the optical jet. The results for the other sources are used to derive emitting-region sizes and black-hole masses for models based on an accreting central black hole.

Tananbaum, H.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Operator Performance Support System (OPSS)

In the complex and fast reaction world of military operations, present technologies, combined with tactical situations, have flooded the operator with assorted information that he is expected to process instantly. As technologies progress, this flow of data and information have both guided and overwhelmed the operator. However, the technologies that have confounded many operators today can be used to assist him -- thus the Operator Performance Support Team. In this paper we propose an operator support station that incorporates the elements of Video and Image Databases, productivity Software, Interactive Computer Based Training, Hypertext/Hypermedia Databases, Expert Programs, and Human Factors Engineering. The Operator Performance Support System will provide the operator with an integrating on-line information/knowledge system that will guide expert or novice to correct systems operations. Although the OPSS is being developed for the Navy, the performance of the workforce in today's competitive industry is of major concern. The concepts presented in this paper which address ASW systems software design issues are also directly applicable to industry. the OPSS will propose practical applications in how to more closely align the relationships between technical knowledge and equipment operator performance.

Conklin, Marlen Z.↗
NASA NTRS1996

Scattering and the Point Spread Function of the New Generation Space Telescope

Preliminary design work on the New Generation Space Telescope (NGST) is currently under way. This telescope is envisioned as a lightweight, deployable Cassegrain reflector with an aperture of 8 meters, and an effective focal length of 80 meters. It is to be folded into a small-diameter package for launch by an Atlas booster, and unfolded in orbit. The primary is to consist of an octagon with a hole at the center, and with eight segments arranged in a flower petal configuration about the octagon. The comers of the petal-shaped segments are to be trimmed so that the package will fit atop the Atlas booster. This mirror, along with its secondary will focus the light from a point source into an image which is spread from a point by diffraction effects, figure errors, and scattering of light from the surface. The distribution of light in the image of a point source is called a point spread function (PSF). The obstruction of the incident light by the secondary mirror and its support structure, the trimmed corners of the petals, and the grooves between the segments all cause the diffraction pattern characterizing an ideal point spread function to be changed, with the trimmed comers causing the rings of the Airy pattern to become broken up, and the linear grooves causing diffraction spikes running radially away from the central spot, or Airy disk. Any figure errors the mirror segments may have, or any errors in aligning the petals with the central octagon will also spread the light out from the ideal point spread function. A point spread function for a mirror the size of the NGST and having an incident wavelength of 900 nm is considered. Most of the light is confined in a circle with a diameter of 0.05 arc seconds. The ring pattern ranges in intensity from 10(exp -2) near the center to 10(exp -6) near the edge of the plotted field, and can be clearly discerned in a log plot of the intensity. The total fraction of the light scattered from this point spread function is called the total integrated scattering (TIS), and the fraction remaining is called the Strehl ratio. The angular distribution of the scattered light is called the angle resolved scattering (ARS), and it shows a strong spike centered on a scattering angle of zero, and a broad , less intense distribution at larger angles. It is this scattered light, and its effect on the point spread function which is the focus of this study.

Schreur, Julian J.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Two Types of Transpolar Arc Development, Event Studies with Data Set of ASTRID-2, DMSP, FAST, and SuperDARN

Aurorae which appear in the polar cap are called transpolar arcs, polar cap arcs, sun-aligned arcs, or occasionally Theta-aurora because of its spatial distribution resembling Greek character 'Theta.' Morphology, IMF (Interplanetary Magnetic Field) relationship, and ionospheric convection patterns were studied in quest of mechanisms of transpolar arcs. Four events were analyzed: 1999/Jan/22/19:00 - 23/01:30 (1 event: a) 1999/Jan/24/06:00 - 10:00 (1 event: b) 1999/Feb/1 1/20:00 - 12/02:00 (2 events: c, d), with data set of ExB drift velocity data obtained by electric field measurements of ASTRID-2 and FAST, DMSP ion driftmeter data, and line-of-sight velocity data of SuperDARN. POLAR-UVI image data were used for spatial and temporal variations of transpolar arcs and ACE data set were used for investigation of IMF relationship. IMF-Bz was strongly positive (Bz from +8nT to +20 nT) during periods of all four transpolar arcs. In events (a),(b),(c), transpolar arcs appeared immediately after the direction of IMF turned northward, though IMF was fluctuating in event (b). A sudden increase of IMF-By, from +3nT to +18nT, was observed in event (d). Two different types of transpolar arc development were observed in POLAR-UVI: one which begins as a split from dawn or dusk sector of auroral oval and shifts poleward in event (a),(c),(d), and another which is initially a patch of auroral oval disturbed by substorm but develops as a transpolar arc, forming a growing finger-like shape from midnight sector (event b). Sunward flow, associated with positive IMF-Bz, were observed within newly-created polar caps in event (a),(c),(d). Not clear ionospheric convection pattern was seen across the polar cap arc in event (b) die to limitation of data set. In event (c), O+ with energy more than 1 keV were observed by FAST within a transpolar arc, suggesting that their origin be from plasma sheet. Transpolar arcs are thought to be projection of plasma sheet bifurcation into lobe regime. There can be several ways of development of transpolar arcs and two different patterns were observed through this work.

Narita, Yasuhito↗
NASA NTRS2011

Dynamic Agents of Magnetosphere-Ionosphere Coupling

VISIONS sounding rocket mission (VISualizing Ion Outflow via Neutral atom imaging during a Substorm) has been awarded to NASA/GSFC (PI Rowland) in order to provide the first combined remote sensing and in situ measurements of the regions where ion acceleration to above 5 e V is occurring, and of the sources of free energy and acceleration mechanisms that accelerate the ions. The key science question of VISIONS is how, when, and where, are ions accelerated to escape velocities in the auroral zone below 1000 km, following substorm onset? Sources of free energy that power this ion acceleration process include (but not limited) electron precipitation, field-aligned currents, velocity shears, and Alfvenic Poynting flux. The combine effect of all these processes on ionospheric ion outflows will be investigated in a framework of the kinetic model that has been developed by Khazanov et al. in order to study the polar wind transport in the presence of photoelectrons.

Khazanov, George V.↗
DOE OSTI2014

Observation of room temperature optical absorption in InP/GaAs type-II ultrathin quantum wells and quantum dots

Room temperature optical absorption process is observed in ultrathin quantum wells (QWs) and quantum dots (QDs) of InP/GaAs type-II band alignment system using surface photovoltage spectroscopy technique, where no measurable photoluminescence signal is available. Clear signature of absorption edge in the sub band gap region of GaAs barrier layer is observed for the ultrathin QWs and QDs, which red shifts with the amount of deposited InP material. Movement of photogenerated holes towards the sample surface is proposed to be the main mechanism for the generation of surface photovoltage in type-II ultrathin QWs and QDs. QDs of smaller size are found to be free from the dislocations as confirmed by the high resolution transmission electron microscopy images.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2025

Volumetric imaging of the 3D orientation of cellular structures with a polarized fluorescence light-sheet microscope

Polarized fluorescence microscopy is a valuable tool for measuring molecular orientations in biological samples, but techniques for recovering three-dimensional orientations and positions of fluorescent ensembles are limited. We report a polarized dual-view light-sheet system for determining the diffraction-limited three-dimensional distribution of the orientations and positions of ensembles of fluorescent dipoles that label biological structures. We share a set of visualization, histogram, and profiling tools for interpreting these positions and orientations. We model the distributions based on the polarization-dependent efficiency of excitation and detection of emitted fluorescence, using coarse-grained representations we call orientation distribution functions (ODFs). We apply ODFs to create physics-informed models of image formation with spatio-angular point-spread and transfer functions. We use theory and experiment to conclude that light-sheet tilting is a necessary part of our design for recovering all three-dimensional orientations. We use our system to extend known two-dimensional results to three dimensions in FM1-43-labeled giant unilamellar vesicles, fast-scarlet-labeled cellulose in xylem cells, and phalloidin-labeled actin in U2OS cells. Additionally, we observe phalloidin-labeled actin in mouse fibroblasts grown on grids of labeled nanowires and identify correlations between local actin alignment and global cell-scale orientation, indicating cellular coordination across length scales.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
DOE OSTI2016

PANCHROMATIC IMAGING OF A TRANSITIONAL DISK: THE DISK OF GM AUR IN OPTICAL AND FUV SCATTERED LIGHT

We have imaged GM Aurigae with the Hubble Space Telescope , detected its disk in scattered light at 1400 and 1650 Å, and compared these with observations at 3300 Å, 5550 Å, 1.1 μ m, and 1.6 μ m. The scattered light increases at shorter wavelengths. The radial surface brightness profile at 3300 Å shows no evidence of the 24 au radius cavity that has been previously observed in submillimeter observations. Comparison with dust grain opacity models indicates that the surface of the entire disk is populated with submicron grains. We have compiled a spectral energy distribution from 0.1 μ m to 1 mm and used it to constrain a model of the star + disk system that includes the submillimeter cavity using the Monte Carlo radiative transfer code by Barbara Whitney. The best-fit model image indicates that the cavity should be detectable in the F330W bandpass if the cavity has been cleared of both large and small dust grains, but we do not detect it. The lack of an observed cavity can be explained by the presence of submicron grains interior to the submillimeter cavity wall. We suggest one explanation for this that could be due to a planet of mass <9 M {sub J} interior to 24 au. A unique cylindrical structure is detected in the far-UV data from the Advanced Camera for Surveys/Solar Blind Channel. It is aligned along the system semiminor axis, but does not resemble an accretion-driven jet. The structure is limb brightened and extends 190 ± 35 au above the disk midplane. The inner radius of the limb brightening is 40 ± 10 au, just beyond the submillimeter cavity wall.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
NASA NTRS1983

Thunderstorm top structure observed by aircraft overflights with an infrared radiometer

Thunderstorm top structure is examined with high spatial resolution radiometric data (visible and infrared) from aircraft overflights together with other storm views, including geosynchronous satellite observations. Results show that overshooting cumuliform towers appear as distinct cold areas in the high resolution, 11-micron IR aircraft images, but that the geosynchronous satellite observations significantly overestimate the thunderstorm-top IR brightness temperature, T(B), due to field of view effects. Profiles of cloud top height and T(B) across overshooting features indicate an adiabatic cloud surface lapse rate. However, one-dimensional cloud model results indicate that when comparing thunderstorm top temperature and height at different times or different storms, a temperature-to-height conversion of about 7 K/km is appropriate. Examination of mature storm evolution indicates that, during periods when the updraft is relatively intense, the satellite IR 'cold point' is aligned with the low-level radar reflectivity maximum, but during periods of updraft weakening and lowering cloud top heights, the satellite T(B) minimum occurs downwind with cirrus anvil debris. The growth period of a relatively weak cumulonimbus cluster is also examined with aircraft and satellite data.

Adler, R. F.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Evidence for mass outflow in the low solar corona over a large sunspot

Spatially resolved EUV coronal emission-line profiles have been obtained in a solar active region, including a large sunspot, using an EUV imaging spectrograph. Relative Doppler velocities were measured in the lines of Mg IX, Fe XV, and Fe XVI with a sensitivity of 2-3 km/s at 350 A. The only significant Doppler shift occurred over the umbra of the large sunspot, in the emission line of Mg IX (at Te of about 1.1 x 10 exp 6 K). The maximum shift corresponded to a peak velocity toward the observer of 14 +/- 3 km/s relative to the mean of measurements in this emission line made elsewhere over the active region. The magnetic field in the low corona was aligned to within 10 deg of the line of sight at the location of maximum Doppler shift. Depending on the closure of the field, such a mass flow could either contribute to the solar wind or reappear as a downflow of material in distant regions on the solar surface. The site of the source, near a major photospheric field boundary, was consistent with origins of low-speed solar wind typically inferred from interplanetary plasma observations.

Neupert, Werner M.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Three-dimensional organization of vestibular-related eye movements to off-vertical axis rotation and linear translation in pigeons

During linear accelerations, compensatory reflexes should continually occur in order to maintain objects of visual interest as stable images on the retina. In the present study, the three-dimensional organization of the vestibulo-ocular reflex in pigeons was quantitatively examined during linear accelerations produced by constant velocity off-vertical axis yaw rotations and translational motion in darkness. With off-vertical axis rotations, sinusoidally modulated eye-position and velocity responses were observed in all three components, with the vertical and torsional eye movements predominating the response. Peak torsional and vertical eye positions occurred when the head was oriented with the lateral visual axis of the right eye directed orthogonal to or aligned with the gravity vector, respectively. No steady-state horizontal nystagmus was obtained with any of the rotational velocities (8-58 degrees /s) tested. During translational motion, delivered along or perpendicular to the lateral visual axis, vertical and torsional eye movements were elicited. No significant horizontal eye movements were observed during lateral translation at frequencies up to 3 Hz. These responses suggest that, in pigeons, all linear accelerations generate eye movements that are compensatory to the direction of actual or perceived tilt of the head relative to gravity. In contrast, no translational horizontal eye movements, which are known to be compensatory to lateral translational motion in primates, were observed under the present experimental conditions.

NASA Discipline Neuroscience↗
NASA NTRS2016

Panchromatic Imaging of a Transitional Disk: The Disk of GM AUR in Optical and FUV Scattered Light

We have imaged GM Aurigae with the Hubble Space Telescope, detected its disk in scattered light at 1400 and 1650 A, and compared these with observations at 3300 A, 5550 A, 1.1 micron, and 1.6 micron. The scattered light increases at shorter wavelengths. The radial surface brightness profile at 3300 A shows no evidence of the 24 au radius cavity that has been previously observed in submillimeter observations. Comparison with dust grain opacity models indicates that the surface of the entire disk is populated with submicron grains. We have compiled a spectral energy distribution from 0.1 micron to 1 mm and used it to constrain a model of the star + disk system that includes the submillimeter cavity using the Monte Carlo radiative transfer code by Barbara Whitney. The best-fit model image indicates that the cavity should be detectable in the F330W bandpass if the cavity has been cleared of both large and small dust grains, but we do not detect it. The lack of an observed cavity can be explained by the presence of submicron grains interior to the submillimeter cavity wall. We suggest one explanation for this that could be due to a planet of mass less than 9M(sub J) interior to 24 au. A unique cylindrical structure is detected in the far- UV data from the Advanced Camera for Surveys/Solar Blind Channel. It is aligned along the system semiminor axis, but does not resemble an accretion-driven jet. The structure is limb brightened and extends 190 +/- 35 au above the disk midplane. The inner radius of the limb brightening is 40 +/- 10 au, just beyond the submillimeter cavity wall.

circumstellar matter aEuro" protoplanetary disks a↗
NASA NTRS2020

Assimilation of satellite microwave observations over the rainbands of tropical cyclones

A novel Bayesian Monte Carlo integration (BMCI) technique was developed to retrieve geophysical variables from satellite microwave radiometer data in the presence of tropical cyclones. The BMCI technique includes three steps: generating a stochastic database, simulating satellite brightness temperatures using a radiative transfer model, and retrieving geophysical variables such as profiles of temperature, relative humidity, and cloud liquid and ice water content from real observations. The technique also provides uncertainty estimates for each retrieval and can output the error covariance matrix of selected parameters. The measurements from the Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder (ATMS) on board Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP) and the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Microwave Imager (GMI) were used as input. A new technique was developed to correct the ATMS and GMI observations for the beam-filling effect, which is due to small-scale variability of precipitation and clouds when compared with the instrument footprint and also the nonlinear relation between the brightness temperature and precipitation. In addition, the assimilation of the BMCI retrievals into the NASA GEOS model is discussed for Hurricane Maria. The results show that assimilating the BMCI retrievals can influence the dynamical features of the cyclone, including a stronger warm core, a symmetric eye, and vertically aligned wind columns. Two possible factors that may limit the impact of the BMCI retrievals include 1) the resolution of the model (about 25 km), which was too coarse to show the potential of the BMCI data in improving the representation of tropical storms in the model forecast, and 2) the data assimilation system not being able to consider vertically correlated observation errors.

Isaac Moradi↗
DOE OSTI2025

Synergistic effects of Al, Ga, and In doping on ZnO nanorod arrays grown via citrate-assisted hydrothermal technique for highly efficient and fast scintillator screens

To be used as efficient alpha particle scintillator in the fields of nuclear security, nuclear nonproliferation and high-energy physics, scintillator screens must have high light output and fast decay properties. While there has been a great deal of progress in scintillation efficiency, achieving fast decay time properties are still a challenge. In this work, the near band edge (NBE) UV luminescence and alpha particle induced scintillation properties of vertically aligned densely packed ZnO nanorods (NRs) doped with Al, Ga, and In have been thoroughly investigated. The high crystalline hexagonal wurtzite structure with a strong orientation through the c -axis plane (002) and aspect ratios in the range 13–22 have been observed for all ZnO NRs. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis exhibited paramagnetic signals at g ≈ 1.96 for all ZnO NRs. A cost effective green hydrothermal synthesis technique was employed to grow well-aligned NRs. Using citrate as an additive acting as a strong reducing agent in the solution during the crystal growth, defects on the surface are significantly suppressed, thereby enhancing the NBE UV emission. Significantly higher NBE UV emission was observed from the top surface of ZnO NRs in cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy. Results show that citrate assisted donor doping of ZnO NRs not only reduces the defect emission and NBE self-absorption, but also induces fast decay time (~ 600–700 ps), which makes ZnO NRs a good candidate for fast alpha particle scintillator screens used in associated particle imaging for time and direction tagging of individual neutrons generated in D–T and D–D neutron generators.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Future Electric Power Industry and Grids—Now What Again is Our Destination?

Having a vision that others agree to support and work toward is highly desirable but hard to achieve. We seem to lack a common and shared understanding of the vision—or worse, multiple visions (vivid mental images or documented statements) with varying areas of focus and details: • some appear to be similar but have differing underlying goals and characteristics, or • some reflect differing viewpoints as to effects on various stakeholders. These desirable and undesirable situations apply to realizing visions for enterprise and industry, including the electricity sector. Multiple industry stakeholder groups have developed goals, industry vision statements, and characterizations of the future. The viewpoints are promoted, discussed, refined by their stakeholder group, and often published to promote broad understanding and to inform or influence others. The GridWise Architecture Council asked itself how well-aligned these characterizations of the future are. If these publications collectively set the overall direction for the industry, it is useful to identify their answers to questions such as, where is the electric industry headed, guided by what objectives, and with what role(s) for the customers, electric utilities, and other stakeholders? Are these goals, visions, and future states moving toward a common vision, do they provide value for the stakeholders, and are they likely to meet the objective stated? This paper addresses these questions via an assessment and characterization of a sampling of stakeholder groups’ publicly available vision and future state reports for the electricity industry. Identified electric power grid architectural topic areas needing further work are described, along with GridWise Architecture Council analysis and observation, potential collaborative work efforts, and suggested next steps.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗