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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,711 records · Page 95
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2012

Active Management of Integrated Geothermal-CO2 Storage Reservoirs in Sedimentary Formations

Active Management of Integrated Geothermal–CO2 Storage Reservoirs in Sedimentary Formations: An Approach to Improve Energy Recovery and Mitigate Risk: FY1 Final Report The purpose of phase 1 is to determine the feasibility of integrating geologic CO2 storage (GCS) with geothermal energy production. Phase 1 includes reservoir analyses to determine injector/producer well schemes that balance the generation of economically useful flow rates at the producers with the need to manage reservoir overpressure to reduce the risks associated with overpressure, such as induced seismicity and CO2 leakage to overlying aquifers. Based on a range of well schemes, techno-economic analyses of the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) are conducted to determine the economic benefits of integrating GCS with geothermal energy production. In addition to considering CO2 injection, reservoir analyses are conducted for nitrogen (N2) injection to investigate the potential benefits of incorporating N2 injection with integrated geothermal-GCS, as well as the use of N2 injection as a potential pressure-support and working-fluid option. Phase 1 includes preliminary environmental risk assessments of integrated geothermal-GCS, with the focus on managing reservoir overpressure. Phase 1 also includes an economic survey of pipeline costs, which will be applied in Phase 2 to the analysis of CO2 conveyance costs for techno-economics analyses of integrated geothermal-GCS reservoir sites. Phase 1 also includes a geospatial GIS survey of potential integrated geothermal-GCS reservoir sites, which will be used in Phase 2 to conduct sweet-spot analyses that determine where promising geothermal resources are co-located in sedimentary settings conducive to safe CO2 storage, as well as being in adequate proximity to large stationary CO2 sources.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

Integrated Energy-Water Planning in the Western and Texas Interconnections

While long-term regional electricity transmission planning has traditionally focused on cost, infrastructure utilization, environmental impact, and reliability, the availability of water is an emerging issue. Toward this growing need, thermoelectric expansion should consider competing demands from other water use sectors balanced with fresh and non-traditional water supplies subject to climate variability. To address this need the Department of Energy's Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability supported an integrated planning project with funding through the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (2009). Specifically, an integrated energy-water analysis was performed to support transmission system planners in the Western and Texas Interconnections to explore the potential implications of water availability and cost for long-term transmission planning. The project brought together electric transmission planners (e.g., Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT)) with western water planners (e.g., Western Governors' Association and the Western States Water Council). Efforts were organized into ten specific tasks: (1) project coordination and outreach; (2) thermoelectric water use; (3) non-thermoelectric water use; (4) water availability; (5) water cost; (6) environmental risk; (7) climate variability; (8) energy for water; (9) decision support system interface; and, (10) transmission planning support. Major accomplishments associated with this effort include: For the first time water availability was used to inform generation expansion planning by WECC and ERCOT. For the first time, projections of intensifying drought and its effect on reservoir levels, and thermal effluent discharge permitting were used to inform operational and expansion planning by ERCOT. Water withdrawal and consumption were characterized for each power plant in the WECC and ERCOT service areas/regions. Water use factors were also developed for a range of unit processes that allowed projection of future water demands related to electric generation expansion planning. Working with state water managers current and future water use (withdrawal and consumption) were projected throughout the Western United States at an 8-digit Hydraulic Unit Code (HUC-8) level (over 1200 watersheds). In a similar fashion water availability and cost were mapped across the Western United States. Considered were five different sources of water: unappropriated surface water, unappropriated groundwater, appropriated water, municipal wastewater and brackish groundwater. Water basins (at the HUC-8 level) were mapped across the Western United States with regard to their potential for conflicts between aquatic and riparian species and habitats listed under the Endangered Species Act and water availability for future energy development. Water planners were engaged through the Western States Water Council and thus reflects their membership of the 17 contiguous western states (i.e., Texas up through the Dakotas and West). Power plants at greatest risk to the impacts of drought were identified. The analysis considered the hazards of low flows, insufficient reservoir storage, and elevated water temperatures under intensifying drought conditions projected for the future. The electricity used to provide water-related services was mapped at a county level throughout the Western U.S. Considered was the electricity required for interbasin conveyance, agricultural pumping, drinking water and wastewater services. To communicate our results the project has produced 6 journal articles, 1 book chapter, 11 reports, and 47 presentations at related conferences.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Stock-specific spatial overlap among seabird predators and Columbia River juvenile Chinook Salmon suggests a mechanism for predation during early marine residence

Abstract Objective Because predation is thought to be the primary source of natural mortality for juvenile salmon first entering the ocean, we sought to identify regions where, on average, stock-specific spatial overlap between the distribution of threatened and endangered juvenile Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha and abundant fish-eating seabirds (common murres Uria aalge and sooty shearwaters Ardenna grisea) suggests the greatest potential for ocean predation risk to juvenile Chinook Salmon. Methods The relative abundance and spatial distribution of seabird predators and juvenile Chinook Salmon were quantified as part of long-term ecosystem surveys during May 2003–2012 and June 2003–2022. Genetic stock identification methods were used to assign individual fish to their respective stock groups. Stock-specific species distribution models then generated maps and indices of average annual spatial overlap between predators and prey within the survey area. Result There is unequivocal evidence for spatial overlap between common murres, sooty shearwaters, and five genetic groups of interior and lower Columbia River juvenile Chinook Salmon. We found strongly positive (≥0.70) spatial correlations between predator and prey densities in both May and June, although spatial overlap was, in general, greater during May. The region of highest spatial overlap occurred on the inner continental shelf between the Columbia River mouth (46.2°N) and Grays Harbor (47.0°N), a region at the beginning of the juvenile salmon migratory pathway that is strongly affected by freshwater outflow from the river. Conclusion Our findings support the idea that ocean avian predation during early marine residence has the potential to affect marine survival of juvenile Chinook Salmon and should be further investigated to better inform and implement ecological models and possible recovery actions for Chinook Salmon populations of the Columbia River basin.

Zamon, Jeannette E.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Imaging Wavepackets in Real-Space & Disentangling Ultrafast Solvation Dynamics with High-Energy Ultrafast X-ray Scattering

The microscopic information of solute and solute-solvent motions can be measured using ultrafast diffuse x-ray scattering, and compared to molecular dynamics simulations, as demonstrated in studies of solvated molecular systems done in X-ray free-electron lasers. However, for the typical photon energies used in these experiments, the photon momentum transfer range was limited to lower Q values where the signals arising from different parts of the studied system overlap significantly. Recently, this limitation was greatly alleviated by extending the photon energy at the Linac Coherent Light-Source (LCLS), significantly increasing the accessible momentum transfer range. This improvement is transformative for ultrafast diffuse x-ray scattering measurements, enabling for the first time to disentangle the solute scattering difference signal, that persists to higher Q values, from the bulk solvent and solute-solvent cross-terms difference signals. In addition, it enhances the prediction ability of modeling and simulation methods such as the hybrid QM/MM approach. The extended Q range also opens the way to resolve in real-space details regarding coherent wavepackets motions beyond their center-of-mass positions. Here, we present the first results on high-energy (18keV) diffuse x-ray scattering in solution, demonstrating high fidelity time-resolved scattering and analysis of the photoexcited model photocatalysts PtPOP ([Pt2(POP)4]4-), and IrDimen ([Ir2(dimen)4]2+) in several solvents. These complexes provide ideal systems for demonstrating the ability of high-Q ultrafast scattering and QM/MM simulations to decompose ultrafast solvation dynamics into specific changes in the solute-solvent pair distribution function with a particular focus on how electronically excited states change the interaction between the solvent and photo-catalytically active metal sites. We introduce an approach to further utilize the high-energy capability and demonstrate a single-shot ultra-wide-angle X-ray Scattering modality using two perpendicular detectors, spanning a scattering angle range of more than 100 degrees, allowing to extend the accessible momentum transfer range up to Q~14 Å-1. We develop a model-free method to invert the x-ray scattering signals and enable the recovery of multiple pair-density motions that happen simultaneously, allowing us to directly measure in real-space nuclear wavepacket motions. . [1] Natan, Adi. "Real-Space Inversion and Super-Resolution of Ultrafast X-ray Scattering using Natural Scattering Kernels." arXiv preprint arXiv:2107.05576 (2021)

Natan, Adi↗
DOE OSTI2023

ARCUS Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine (Final Scientific/Technical Report)

While land-based wind energy has become economically competitive with traditional energy generation sources in the U.S., offshore wind is not. For floating offshore wind this difference is even more substantial where the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is projected to be around 3-5 times more expensive than land-based wind. The turbine capital costs represent around 50% of the LCOE for land-based wind sites, but the increased system costs for floating offshore wind reduce this to 20%. The platform and mooring costs are the single largest contributor to the LCOE for floating offshore wind where their mass must counteract the overturning moment caused by the turbine’s thrust force. Despite the high costs of the platform and relatively low cost of the turbine, current offshore wind turbines are designed essentially the same as for land-based sites. Reducing the LCOE is the greatest challenge to realize the benefits of sustained development of floating offshore wind in the U.S. Reducing the complicated system costs of floating offshore wind will enable the industry to continue to grow and outpace current projections if reduced cost curves can be reached. The ideal wind energy system would remove all mass and cost that is not directly capturing energy from the wind. For floating offshore wind energy systems, this objective is even more significant as increased mass above the water level must be supported by larger and more expensive floating platforms. For this reason, vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) are ideal for floating offshore sites and have several advantages over horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) at this scale. Large VAWTs offer opportunities for improved energy capture over HAWTs as single units and with reduced wind plant aerodynamic losses through enhanced wake recovery. Additionally, the platform-level placement of the VAWT drivetrain greatly reduces the demands placed on the floating platform and its mass and cost. The ARCUS vertical-axis wind turbine concept (U.S. 11,421,650 B2) is an iteration beyond traditional Darrieus-type VAWTs that replaces the rigid tower with blades that are bent into shape and held in place with tensioned center supports, like a bow. The ARCUS design has been shown to further decrease the VAWT rotor mass properties, with a 50% reduction over traditional Darrieus VAWTs quantified in the ATLANTIS program. The ARCUS VAWT’s efficient use of material for the rotor and turbine support structures combined with its lowered center of gravity enables a tension-leg platform (TLP) with simplified installation procedures. TLPs have been an emerging platform architecture in the Oil and Gas industry and demonstrated to have the lowest hull mass requirements while maintaining stability with minimal roll and pitch deflections in operation. A 22 MW ARCUS turbine has been designed with a three-column TLP that enables quayside integration of the turbine while maintaining system stability during tow-out and installation and having optimal mass and cost properties. A comprehensive analysis shows the optimal ARCUS TLP system design minimizes LCOE through efficient material usage and increased energy capture to yield a competitive LCOE estimate of $\$$55/MWh. A comparison with a reference HAWT, having the same swept area, quantifies the advantages that helped to produce this improved LCOE for the ARCUS concept: (1) 30% reduction in total turbine mass, (2) 70% reduction in turbine center of gravity, and (3) 45% increase in energy production over what is optimal for a HAWT. Intellectual property has been generated through the ATLANTIS program providing opportunities to further reduce the LCOE and improve the performance of the ARCUS turbine and TLP system, expanding the list of innovations to support commercial development of the ARCUS concept.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

Development and applications of retro-reflective surfaces for ultrasound in LBE

The Belgian Nuclear Research Centre SCK-CEN is in the process of developing MYRRHA - a fast flux research reactor to replace the aging BR2. MYRRHA is conceptualized as an accelerator driven system cooled by lead bismuth eutectic mixture (LBE). As LBE is opaque to visual light, ultrasonic measurement techniques are employed as the main technology to provide feedback to submerged operations when needed. Conceptually, MYRRHA is a pool type reactor divided in a cold lower plenum and hot upper plenum separated by a diaphragm that forces the main flow through the core. The main flow is cooled by four heat exchangers and driven by two liquid metal pumps. One of the tasks tackled using ultrasound is locating a potentially lost fuel assembly to assist a recovery operation. As all fuel manipulations in MYRRHA are performed in the lower plenum, a potentially lost fuel assembly is located in the lower plenum. Buoyancy will force the lost fuel assembly to float against the diaphragm unless it is still partially inserted in the core. Because of the latter situation, an ultrasonic scan localizing the fuel assembly should be performed from a large distance to avoid a collision with such a partially inserted fuel assembly. Unfortunately, standard machined stainless steel objects, such as a fuel assembly, reflect an ultrasonic pulse in a specular way which induces stringent requirements on the alignment of the ultrasonic sensor with respect to the fuel assembly as we cannot rely on diffuse reflections and/or scattering of the ultrasonic pulse. Moreover, increasing the distance also increases geometric spreading and absorption of the pulse weakening the signal amplitude even faster to noise levels when deviating from perfect alignment. An alternative approach consists in relying on reflections from the known surroundings: a lost fuel assembly will block the line-of-sight to the diaphragm resulting in an anomaly in the reflection - either a shorter than expected time-of-flight of the pulse or a complete absence of a reflection like a shadow. In that way, it suffices to align the sensor with the diaphragm instead of the fuel assembly which is much easier to achieve as the robotics on which the sensor is mounted move parallel with the diaphragm. The alignment requirement in the latter approach can be further relaxed by using a tiling of retro-reflectors on the lower surface of the diaphragm. In that way, alignment becomes less vital and the main source of acoustic energy loss - geometric spread of the beam - is almost completely removed, leaving only absorption losses. In this paper, we present the first results in developing a retro reflectance surface for ultrasound in LBE. We present experimental results for different designs of retro-reflectors in both water and LBE. We discuss both linear and array retro-reflectors of different sizes and investigate the influence of the main relevant ultrasonic parameters such as wavelength and spot size on the strength of the received reflection under different alignment angles. We also demonstrate how retro-reflective surfaces can be exploited when localizing objects using linear and rotating scanning methods. (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Evaluation of Used Fuel Disposition in Clay-Bearing Rock

The DOE R&D program under the Spent Fuel Waste Science Technology (SFWST) campaign has made key progress in modeling and experimental approaches towards the characterization of chemical and physical phenomena that could impact the long-term safety assessment of nuclear waste disposition in deep clay/shale/argillaceous rock. Interactional collaboration activities such as heater tests, particularly postmortem sample recovery and analysis, have elucidated important information regarding changes in engineered barrier system (EBS) material exposed to years of thermal loads. Chemical and structural analyses of bentonite material from such tests has been key to the characterization of thermal effects affecting clay composition, sorption behavior, and swelling. These are crucial to evaluating the nature and extent of bentonite barrier sacrificial zones in the EBS during the thermal period. Thermal, hydrologic, and chemical data collected from heater tests and laboratory experiments has been used in the development and validation of THMC simulators to model near-field coupled processes affecting engineered and natural barrier materials, particularly during the thermal period. This information leads to the development of simulation approaches (e.g., continuum vs. discrete) to tackle issues related to flow and transport depending on the nature of the host-rock and EBS design concept. This report describes R&D efforts on disposal in argillaceous geologic media through developments of coupled THMC process models, hydrothermal experiments and characterization of clay/metal barrier material interactions, and spent fuel and canister material degradation. Currently, the THM modeling focus is on heater test experiments in argillite rock and gas migration in bentonite as part of international collaboration activities at underground research laboratories (URLs). In addition, field testing at an URL involves probing of fault movement and characterization of fault permeability changes. Analyses of barrier samples (bentonite) from heater tests at URLs provide compositional and structural data to evaluate changes in clay swelling and thermal behavior with distance from the heater surface. Development of a spent fuel degradation model coupled with canister corrosion effects has been centered towards its integration with Generic Disposal System Analysis (GDSA) to describe source term behavior. As in previous milestone deliverables, this report is structured according to various national laboratory contributions describing R&D activities applicable to clay/shale/argillite media.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2025

Rigid Supramolecular Aramid Nanotubes as Catalyst Supports

Solution‐phase heterogeneous catalysts benefit from nanoscale dimensions, which maximize specific surface area and enhance catalytic activity. However, the ease of recovering such nanocatalysts depends on the design of the support materials, which are often particle‐like. Rigid 1D nanomaterials are proposed as supports that can enhance separability while offering high volumetric specific surface area for greater catalyst loading and activity. Here, aramid amphiphiles (AAs) are designed to spontaneously self‐assemble in water into high‐aspect‐ratio supramolecular nanotubes with tunable surface chemistry. These AA nanotubes exhibit high persistence lengths (P = 750 ± 340 µm) and mechanical stiffnesses (3 N/m). Incorporating surface thiol groups enables immobilization of catalytic gold nanoparticles. The resulting AA nanotube‐gold nanoparticle complexes exhibit high catalytic activity, efficient recoverability via simple microfiltration, and sustained reusability over ten reaction cycles. This study demonstrates the utility of molecular self‐assembled 1D nanomaterials as versatile scaffolds for the reuse and recovery of nanoscale catalysts.

1D nanomaterials↗
DOE OSTI2012

Fast 704 MHz Ferroelectric Tuner for Superconducting Cavities

The Omega-P SBIR project described in this Report has as its goal the development, test, and evaluation of a fast electrically-controlled L-band tuner for BNL Energy Recovery Linac (ERL) in the Electron Ion Collider (EIC) upgrade of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL). The tuner, that employs an electrically-controlled ferroelectric component, is to allow fast compensation to cavity resonance changes. In ERLs, there are several factors which significantly affect the amount of power required from the wall-plug to provide the RF-power level necessary for the operation. When beam loading is small, the power requirements are determined by (i) ohmic losses in cavity walls, (ii) fluctuations in amplitude and/or phase for beam currents, and (iii) microphonics. These factors typically require a substantial change in the coupling between the cavity and the feeding line, which results in an intentional broadening of the cavity bandwidth, which in turn demands a significant amount of additional RF power. If beam loading is not small, there is a variety of beam-drive phase instabilities to be managed, and microphonics will still remain an issue, so there remain requirements for additional power. Moreover ERL performance is sensitive to changes in beam arrival time, since any such change is equivalent to phase instability with its vigorous demands for additional power. In this Report, we describe the new modular coaxial tuner, with specifications suitable for the 704 MHz ERL application. The device would allow changing the RF-coupling during the cavity filling process in order to effect significant RF power savings, and also will provide rapid compensation for beam imbalance and allow for fast stabilization against phase fluctuations caused by microphonics, beam-driven instabilities, etc. The tuner is predicted to allow a reduction of about ten times in the required power from the RF source, as compared to a compensation system with narrower bandwidth. It is planned to build a 704 MHz version of the tuner, to check its underlying principles, and to make high-power tests at power densities aimed towards controlling 50 kW of average power. Steps towards this goal will be limited by, among other factors, losses in the actual ferroelectric elements in the ferroelectric assemblies. As the ferroelectric material loss tangent is reduced through efforts by the supplier Euclid TechLabs LLC, the concomitant power loss in its ferroelectric assemblies will drop, and the average power-handling capability of the Omega-P tuner will rise. It can thus be anticipated that the Phase II development project of the 704 MHz tuner will be iterative, but the pace and ultimate power-handling level of the tuner is difficult to predict at this early stage in Euclid's development program. Fortunately, since Omega-P's conceptual tuner is a simple module (nominally rated for 5 kW), so that the number of modules required in each tuner can be chosen, depending upon the cavity power level needed, plus the power for tuner losses.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Consideration of liners and covers in performance assessments

On-site disposal cells are in use and being considered at several United States Department of Energy (USDOE) sites as the final disposition for large amounts of waste associated with cleanup of contaminated areas and facilities. These disposal cells are typically regulated by States and/or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) in addition to having to comply with requirements in DOE Order 435.1, Radioactive Waste Management due to the radioactive waste. The USDOE-Environmental Management Office of Site Restoration formed a working group to foster improved communication and sharing of information for personnel associated with these CERCLA disposal cells and work towards more consistent assumptions, as appropriate, for technical and policy considerations related to CERCLA risk assessments and DOE Order 435.1 performance assessments in support of a Record of Decision and Disposal Authorization Statement, respectively. One of the issues considered by the working group, which is addressed in this report, was how to appropriately consider the performance of covers and liners/leachate collections systems in the context of a DOE Order 435.1 performance assessment (PA). This same information may be appropriate for consideration within CERCLA risk assessments for these facilities. These OSDCs are generally developed to meet hazardous waste (HW) disposal design standards under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) as well as the DOE Order 435.1 performance based standards for disposal of radioactive waste. To meet the standards for HW, the facilities typically include engineered covers and liner/leachate collection systems. Thus, when considering such facilities in the context of a DOE Order 435.1 PA, there is a need to address the evolution of performance of covers and liner/leachate collection systems in the context of meeting a performance standard considering time frames of 1,000 years for compliance and potentially thousands of years based on the wastes to test the robustness of the system. Experience has shown that there are a range of expectations and perspectives from the different regulators involved at different sites when reviewing assumptions related to cover and liner/leachate collection system performance. However for HW disposal alone under RCRA the design standards are typically considered sufficient by the regulators without a requirement to assess long-term performance thus avoiding the need to consider the details addressed in this report. This report provides suggestions for a general approach to address covers and liners/leachate collection systems in a DOE Order 435.1 PA and how to integrate assessments with defense-in-depth considerations such as design, operations, and waste acceptance criteria to address uncertainties. The emphasis is on water balances and management in such assessments. Specific information and references are provided for details needed to address the evolution of individual components of cover and liner/leachate collection systems. This information was then synthesized into suggestions for best practices for cover and liner system design and examples of approaches to address the performance of covers and liners as part of a performance assessment of the disposal system. Numerous references are provided for sources of information to help describe the basis for performance of individual components of cover and liner systems.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS2013

Using a Blender to Assess the Microbial Density of Encapsulated Organisms

There are specific NASA requirements for source-specific encapsulated microbial density for encapsulated organisms in non-metallic materials. Projects such as the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) that use large volumes of non-metallic materials of planetary protection concern pose a challenge to their bioburden budget. An optimized and adapted destructive hardware technology employing a commercial blender was developed to assess the embedded bioburden of thermal paint for the MSL project. The main objective of this optimization was to blend the painted foil pieces in the smallest sizes possible without excessive heating. The small size increased the surface area of the paint and enabled the release of the maximum number of encapsulated microbes. During a trial run, a piece of foil was placed into a blender for 10 minutes. The outside of the blender was very hot to the touch. Thus, the grinding was reduced to five 2-minute periods with 2-minute cooling periods between cycles. However, almost 20% of the foil fraction was larger (>2 mm). Thus, the largest fractions were then put into the blender and reground, resulting in a 71% increase in particles less than 1 mm in size, and a 76% decrease in particles greater than 2 mm in size. Because a repeatable process had been developed, a painted sample was processed with over 80% of the particles being <2 mm. It was not perceived that the properties (i.e. weight and rubber-like nature) of the painted/foil pieces would allow for a finer size distribution. With these constraints, each section would be ground for a total of 10 minutes with five cycles of a 2-minute pulse followed by a 2-minute pause. It was observed on several occasions that a larger blade affected the recovery of seeded spores by approximately half an order of magnitude. In the standard approach, each piece of painted foil was aseptically removed from the bag and placed onto a sterile tray where they were sized, cut, and cleaned. Each section was then weighed and placed into a sterile Waring Laboratory Blender. Samples were processed on low speed. The ground-up samples were then transferred to a 500-mL bottle using a sterile 1-in. (.2.5-cm) trim brush. To each of the bottles sterile planetary protection rinse solution was added and a modified NASA Standard Assay (NASA HBK 6022) was performed. Both vegetative and spore plates were analyzed.

Benardini, James N.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Major element composition controls rare earth element solubility during leaching of coal fly ash and coal by-products

Coal combustion ash and pre-combustion coal refuse are currently under consideration as potential sources of rare earth elements. One of the early steps in recovering REEs from coal by-products is often acid leaching, which can result in low pH leachates with complex aqueous chemistry. The aim of this work was to understand the connection between REE solubility, pH, and major elemental components of leachates for coal by-products. To accomplish this, we investigated the effects of solids concentration (i.e., pulp density) and pH adjustment on REE solubility in acid leachates of coal fly ashes from the Powder River Basin (PRB) and Appalachian Basin in the United States, and a coal processing refuse from the Southwestern U.S. For PRB ashes, the concentrations of soluble REEs generally increased with increasing pulp density; however, at pulp density values above 80–100 g/L, the soluble REE concentrations in the leachates were markedly lower. Similarly, the soluble concentrations of other major solutes (Fe, Al, Si) that leached from PRB fly ashes were also non-linear with pulp density. These major elements tended to reach maximum concentration values at 60–70 g/L pulp density. In contrast, for the Appalachian fly ashes and the coal by-product, soluble concentrations of REE and major elements in leachates increased linearly with pulp density. Chemical equilibria calculations of mineral saturation indices indicated that trends in soluble REE concentrations could be explained by saturation conditions for Fe and Al-(hydr)oxides and possibly sulfate minerals, but not lanthanide hydroxides. Furthermore, pH adjustment of the acid leachates showed that REEs and many major solutes were removed from solution at pH values above 4.5, also consistent with Fe- and Al-(hydr)oxide precipitation. These results highlight the importance of understanding the chemical composition of leachates when designing REE recovery processes for low-grade geologic feedstocks and that precipitation of hydr(oxide) or sulfate minerals of major elements rather than discreet formation of REE mineral phases could be used for process optimization.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2019

Materials-to-device design of hybrid metal-polymer heat exchanger tubes for low temperature waste heat recovery

Heat exchangers for low temperature (<150 °C) waste heat recovery (WHR) are challenging due to severe constraints on materials costs, manufacturing methods, and maintenance opportunities after installation. Here, the use of polymers instead of metals, offers an avenue for cost reduction in WHR applications, provided the typical low thermal conductivity of polymers (~0.2 W m –1 K –1 ) that results in poor overall heat transfer coefficient can be overcome. Previous approaches to enhance the thermal conductivity of polymers remain problematic in terms of cost, thermal, and thermomechanical considerations. In this work, we propose a novel hybrid metal-polymer composite assembled from strips of polymer and copper. Polymer strips with metal-clad edges are wound helically and the interfaces between the strips joined to obtain a tube for a cross-flow heat exchanger. Interfaces are designed to enhance effective heat conduction across the material and increase the overall heat transfer coefficient. Through numerical simulations, we obtain metal-polymer layouts that achieve wall effective thermal conductivity ~1 W m –1 K –1 at ~23% or ~35% volume fraction of copper or aluminum, respectively. The conductivity enhancement is sufficient for typical low temperature WHR, resulting in a ~20% enhancement in the overall heat transfer coefficient compared to a similar all-polymer heat exchanger. Thermomechanical simulations revealed that the composite pipe designs can withstand >1.4 MPa internal pressure, under the normal operating conditions of the heat exchanger. Our work provides guidelines for designing macroscopic metal-polymer composites that can be adapted for specific requirements such as reduced materials costs, ease of manufacturing, and heat transfer enhancement. In conclusion, the optimized design of hybrid metal-polymer heat exchanger tubes potentially provides a scalable and cost-effective route toward harvesting waste heat from low temperature sources.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Precursor Analysis Report: Industroyer2 and Wiper Malware Targeting Ukrainian Energy Provider 2022

The Industroyer2 and Wiper Malware Targeting Ukrainian Energy Provider 2022 Precursor Analysis Report leverages publicly available information about the Industroyer2 cyber attack and catalogs anomalous observables for each technique employed in the attack. This analysis is based upon the methodology of the Cybersecurity for the Operational Technology Environment (CyOTE) program. An adversary attempted to cause a blackout in Ukraine in April 2022 by using the Industroyer2 malware against a regional Ukrainian energy provider. The adversary targeted eight high-voltage electrical substations and utilized the malware in tandem with disk wipers for Windows, Linux, and Solaris operating systems in an attempt to make response and recovery efforts more difficult. The adversary reused a piece of the original Industroyer malware designed to open circuit breakers and de-energize target substations. The adversary gained initial access to the victim’s enterprise network through unknown means in February 2022 and was able to perform reconnaissance, pivot to the operations network, and reside in the system for at least 51 days. This gave the adversary a detailed understanding of the environment and allowed them to customize the Industroyer2 malware to the victim’s operations network. However, defenders detected and stopped the attack before the adversary could achieve their intended impact. Had the Industroyer2 attack been successful, it could have caused a blackout for more than two million people during the early stages of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Researchers and analysts identified 22 unique techniques (used in a sequence of 31 steps) utilized during the attack with a total of 297 observables using MITRE ATT&CK® for Industrial Control Systems. The CyOTE program assesses observables accompanying techniques used prior to the triggering event to identify opportunities to detect malicious activity. If observables accompanying the attack techniques are perceived and investigated prior to the triggering event, earlier comprehension of malicious activity can take place. Twenty-three of the identified techniques used during the Industroyer2 cyber attack were precursors to the triggering event. Analysis identified 224 observables associated with these precursor techniques, 122 of which were assessed to have an increased likelihood of being perceived in the 51 days preceding the triggering event. The response and comprehension time could have been reduced if the observables had been identified earlier. The information gathered in this report contributes to a library of observables tied to a repository of artifacts, data sources, and technique detection references for practitioners and developers to support the comprehension of indicators of attack. Asset owners and operators can use these products if they experience similar observables or to prepare for comparable scenarios.

45 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY, WEAPONRY, AND NATIONAL DEF↗
DOE OSTI2014

TH-C-17A-05: Cherenkov Excited Phosphorescence Oxygen (CEPhOx) Imaging During Multi-Beam Radiation Therapy

Purpose: Cherenkov radiation is created during external beam radiation therapy that can excite phosphorescence in tissue from oxygen-sensitive, bio-compatible probes. Utilizing the known spatial information of the treatment plan with directed multiple beam angles, Cherenkov Excited Phosphorescence Oxygen (CEPhOx) imaging was realized from the reconstructions of Cherenkov excited phosphorescence lifetime. Methods: Platinum(II)-G4 (PtG4) was used as the oxygen-sensitive phosphorescent probe and added to a oxygenated cylindrical liquid phantom with a oxygenated/deoxygenated cylindrical anomaly. Cherenkov excited phosphorescence was imaged using a time-gated ICCD camera temporallysynchronized to the LINAC pulse output. Lifetime reconstruction was carried out in NIRFAST software. Multiple angles of the incident radiation beam was combined with the location of the prescribed treatment volume (PTV) to improve the tomographic recovery as a function of location. The tissue partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) in the background and PTV was calculated based on the recovered lifetime distribution and Stern-Volmer equation. Additionally a simulation study was performed to examine the accuracy of this technique in the setting of a human brain tumor. Results: Region-based pO2 values in the oxygenated background and oxygenated/deoxygenated PTV were correctly recovered, with the deoxygenated anomaly (15.4 mmHg) easily distinguished from the oxygenated background (143 mmHg). The data acquisition time could be achieved within the normal irradiation time for a human fractionated plan. The simulations indicated that CEPhOx would be a sufficient to sample tumor pO2 sensing from tumors which are larger than 2cm in diameter or within 23mm depth from the surface. Conclusion: CEPhOx could be a novel imaging tool for pO2 assessment during external radiation beam therapy. It is minimally invasive and should work within the established treatment plan of radiation therapy with multiple beams in situations where tumor pO2 measurement is a pertinent radiotherapy efficiency and dosimetric need.

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Modeling Advanced Strippers for CO2 Capture from Gas-Fired Power Plants using Aqueous Piperazine

Energy performance of 5 m piperazine was evaluated with an advanced stripper at the pilot scale, accounting for heat loss. Modeling studies indicated that heat loss at locations other than the heat source impacted the heat duty. For strippers with excess packing, the column was the most important source of heat loss, and values as low as 0.03 GJ/hr can cause pinch and reabsorption of CO2. Solvents like 5 m PZ are more affected by heat loss in the column due to a top-side temperature pinch at high lean loading. Heat loss impacts NGCC CO2 capture more than coal-based CO2 capture. Surface temperature measurements pilot plants showed that heat loss was 50-75% controlled by natural convection. Measured heat loss was correlated with steam flowrate and wind speed and ranged from 8126 to 219668 Btu/hr, representing 35% of the measured heat rate on average. Net heat duty linearly varied with CO2 removal at low lean loading and was similar for coal and NGCC conditions at fixed removal. At 90% removal, net heat duty was about 2.5 GJ/t with 4 and 12% CO2 in the flue gas. 7 At NGCC conditions, strippers with finite packing can benefit from a flashing feed to the top of the column by using a hot bypass. A flashing feed was linked to a reduction in irreversibility of the stripper from temperature driving forces. It also reduces heat duty by up to 6% at fixed packing height and reduces packing requirement for a fixed steam heater size compared to a warm bypass. Lean loading and lean solvent rate were effective handles to maximize profitability of a fixed stripper design at low gas price. High ambient temperature operation can benefit from low pressure stripping to about 0.18 lean loading at 150 ℃ to maintain the cyclic capacity at reduced rich loading. At low gas price, the capture plant was able to maximize profitability even with a high heat duty of 2.7-3.1 GJ/t at a lean loading of 0.2-0.22 mol/mol. Heat recovery by partial water vapor condensation in a gas-liquid exchanger can be replaced by a direct contact condenser (DCC). The DCC improved gas cooling and reduced heat duty compared to the CO2 exchanger at 0.2 lean loading. The DCC when used with a 150 ℃/5.5 bar stripper can reduce the cost of capture compared to the base case by $3- 4/tonne at 15 ft of packing (optimum) but increases cost of capture by $6/tonne with a 120 ℃/2 bar stripper and 10 ft of packing (optimum). The DCC can work effectively with a solvent with a high heat of absorption and thermal stability.

Suresh Babu, Athreya↗
DOE OSTI2016

Thermal effects on geologic carbon storage

One of the most promising ways to significantly reduce greenhouse gases emissions, while carbon-free energy sources are developed, is Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). Non-isothermal effects play a major role in all stages of CCS. In this paper, we review the literature on thermal effects related to CCS, which is receiving an increasing interest as a result of the awareness that the comprehension of non-isothermal processes is crucial for a successful deployment of CCS projects. We start by reviewing CO 2 transport, which connects the regions where CO 2 is captured with suitable geostorage sites. The optimal conditions for CO 2 transport, both onshore (through pipelines) and offshore (through pipelines or ships), are such that CO 2 stays in liquid state. To minimize costs, CO 2 should ideally be injected at the wellhead in similar pressure and temperature conditions as it is delivered by transport. To optimize the injection conditions, coupled wellbore and reservoir simulators that solve the strongly non-linear problem of CO 2 pressure, temperature and density within the wellbore and non-isothermal two-phase flow within the storage formation have been developed. CO 2 in its way down the injection well heats up due to compression and friction at a lower rate than the geothermal gradient, and thus, reaches the storage formation at a lower temperature than that of the rock. Inside the storage formation, CO 2 injection induces temperature changes due to the advection of the cool injected CO 2 , the Joule-Thomson cooling effect, endothermic water vaporization and exothermic CO 2 dissolution. These thermal effects lead to thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical coupled processes with non-trivial interpretations. These coupled processes also play a relevant role in “Utilization” options that may provide an added value to the injected CO 2 , such as Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), Enhanced Coal Bed Methane (ECBM) and geothermal energy extraction combined with CO 2 storage. If the injected CO 2 leaks through faults, the caprock or wellbores, strong cooling will occur due to the expansion of CO 2 as pressure decreases with depth. Finally, we conclude by identifying research gaps and challenges of thermal effects related to CCS.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Rapidly Viable Sustained Grid

Rapid recovery of power flow, possibly after a blackout, is a crucial need arising in scenarios that are increasingly becoming more frequent; here, solutions for rapid viability of power while the grid is being restored are urgently needed to keep critical infrastructure (CI) online. Increasingly, after the initial recovery phase, sustenance of reliable power requires assistive services to the grid for long periods of time. Even though the need is urgent, there is only sparse effort present toward a comprehensive framework/strategy for making power rapidly viable with an emphasis on sustained grid ancillary services; which is the focus of this proposal. The proposed concept envisions four phases. In the first phase, when a large portion of power is disrupted (see Figure 1(a)), emphasis is on bringing CI online with the objective of maximizing the time horizon of power viability using resources available at the CI. In the second phase (Figure 1(b)), neighborhood resources are tightly coordinated that forms the CI’s central-core (CC) to provide guaranteed viability of CI over a longer horizon. In the third phase, self-organizing power networks are expanded in a distributed layer supporting the central-core (Figure 1(c)). In the fourth phase, separate CI-networks coalesce and are controlled in a coordinated fashion to provide grid ancillary services (AS), such as primary frequency control and enhancing grid resiliency. With time, system efficiencies and penetration of renewables increase, while the time-horizon of guaranteed sustenance of CI is maximized. Under proposed work, the concept will be instantiated with a focus on medical centers as CI. Comprehensive power hardware in the loop strategies and emulated field tests will guide and validate devised solutions. A strong T2M effort to commercialize resulting technology is outlined. The proposed technology will be transformative for the grid. It will fundamentally change the way large contingencies are managed where power systems and critical infrastructure transition from being fragile to being robust using intelligent, self-organizing control for coordinating resources, enhanced resiliency and use of sustainable energy sources.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗