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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2004

Version 8 SBUV Ozone Profile Trends Compared with Trends from a Zonally Averaged Chemical Model

Linear regression trends for the years 1979-2003 were computed using the new Version 8 merged Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SBUV) data set of ozone profiles. These trends were compared to trends computed using ozone profiles from the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) zonally averaged coupled model. Observed and modeled annual trends between 50 N and 50 S were a maximum in the higher latitudes of the upper stratosphere, with southern hemisphere (SH) trends greater than northern hemisphere (NH) trends. The observed upper stratospheric maximum annual trend is -5.5 +/- 0.9 % per decade (1 sigma) at 47.5 S and -3.8 +/- 0.5 % per decade at 47.5 N, to be compared with the modeled trends of -4.5 +/- 0.3 % per decade in the SH and -4.0 +/- 0.2% per decade in the NH. Both observed and modeled trends are most negative in winter and least negative in summer, although the modeled seasonal difference is less than observed. Model trends are shown to be greatest in winter due to a repartitioning of chlorine species and the increasing abundance of chlorine with time. The model results show that trend differences can occur depending on whether ozone profiles are in mixing ratio or number density coordinates, and on whether they are recorded on pressure or altitude levels.

Rosenfield, Joan E.↗
NASA NTRS2004

A Plasmaspheric Mass Density Model and Constraints on its Heavy Ion Concentration

The first empirical model of the equatorial mass density of the plasmasphere is constructed using ground-based ULF wave diagnostics. Plasmaspheric mass density between L=l.7 and L=3.2 has been determined using over 5200 hours of data from pairs of stations in the MEASURE array of ground magnetometers. The least-squares fit to the data as a function of L shows that mass density falls logarithmically with L. Average ion mass as a function of L is also estimated by combining the mass density model with plasmaspheric electron density profiles determined from the IMAGE Radio Plasma Imager (RPI). Additionally, we use the RPI electron density database to examine how the average ion mass changes under different levels of geomagnetic activity. We find that average ion mass is greatest under the most disturbed conditions. This result indicates that heavy ion concentrations are enhanced during large geomagnetic disturbances, and therefore play an important role in storm-time plasmaspheric dynamics. The average ion mass is also used to constrain the concentrations of He(+) and O(+). Estimates of the He(+) concentration determined this way can be useful for interpreting IMAGE Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUV) images.

Berube, D.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Antistatic Polycarbonate/Copper Oxide Composite

A composite material consisting of polycarbonate filled with copper oxide has been found to be suitable as an antistatic material. This material was developed to satisfy a requirement for an antistatic material that has a mass density less than that of aluminum and that exhibits an acceptably low level of outgassing in a vacuum.

Kovich, Michael↗
NASA NTRS2021

Upper Limits on the Isotropic Gravitational-Wave Background from Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo's Third Observing Run

We report results of a search for an isotropic gravitational-wave background (GWB) using data from Advanced LIGO's and Advanced Virgo's third observing run (O3) combined with upper limits from the earlier O1 and O2 runs. Unlike in previous observing runs in the advanced detector era, we include Virgo in the search for the GWB. The results of the search are consistent with uncorrelated noise, and therefore we place upper limits on the strength of the GWB. We find that the dimensionless energy density Ω(sub GW) ≤ 5.8 × 10(exp -9) at the 95% credible level for a at (frequency-independent) GWB, using a prior which is uniform in the log of the strength of the GWB, with 99% of the sensitivity coming from the band 20-76.6 Hz; Ω(sub GW)(f) ≤ 3.4 × 10(exp -9) at 25 Hz for a power-law GWB with a spectral index of 2/3 (consistent with expectations for compact binary coalescences), in the band 20-90.6 Hz; and Ω(sub GW)(f) ≤ 3.9 × 10(exp -10) at 25 Hz for a spectral index of 3, in the band 20-291.6 Hz. These upper limits improve over our previous results by a factor of 6.0 for a at GWB, 8.8 for a spectral index of 2/3, and 13.1 for a spectral index of 3. We also search for a GWB arising from scalar and vector modes, which are predicted by alternative theories of gravity; we do not find evidence of these, and place upper limits on the strength of GWBs with these polarizations. We demonstrate that there is no evidence of correlated noise of magnetic origin by performing a Bayesian analysis that allows for the presence of both a GWB and an effective magnetic background arising from geophysical Schumann resonances. We compare our upper limits to a fiducial model for the GWB from the merger of compact binaries, updating the model to use the most recent data-driven population inference from the systems detected during O3a. Finally, we combine our results with observations of individual mergers and show that, at design sensitivity, this joint approach may yield stronger constraints on the merger rate of binary black holes at z ≳ 2 than can be achieved with individually resolved mergers alone.

Ryan Abbott↗
DOE OSTI2025

Examination of simulated behavior of ND-LAr and TMS detectors using CAFAna for DUNE analysis framework

Simulations are run using the new DUNE CAFAna framework to generate pseudo-data modeling the interactions of neutrinos in the DUNE near detector at truth-level and detector-level. Truth-level analysis of neutrino kinematics reveals strong agreement with expected behavior, validating the kinematic portion of the simulation. Examination of the detector-level reconstructions of coordinates of interaction vertex appear consistent with an interaction density independent of detector position. Track lengths of particles resultant from neutrino interactions are aligned with varied particle identities, but are misaligned with prediction of uniform position density.

Fein, Jarrett [Fermilab]↗
DOE OSTI2021

A predictive discrete-continuum multiscale model of plasticity with quantified uncertainty

Multiscale models of materials, consisting of upscaling discrete simulations to continuum models, are unique in their capability to simulate complex materials behavior. The fundamental limitation in multiscale models is the presence of uncertainty in the computational predictions delivered by them. In this work, a sequential multiscale model has been developed, incorporating discrete dislocation dynamics (DDD) simulations and a strain gradient plasticity (SGP) model to predict the size effect in plastic deformations of metallic micro-pillars. The DDD simulations include uniaxial compression of micro-pillars with different sizes and over a wide range of initial dislocation densities and spatial distributions of dislocations. An SGP model is employed at the continuum level that accounts for the size-dependency of flow stress and hardening rate. Sequences of uncertainty analyses have been performed to assess the predictive capability of the multiscale model. The variance-based global sensitivity analysis determines the effect of parameter uncertainty on the SGP model prediction. The multiscale model is then constructed by calibrating the continuum model using the data furnished by the DDD simulations. A Bayesian calibration method is implemented to quantify the uncertainty due to microstructural randomness in discrete dislocation simulations (density and spatial distribution of dislocations) on the macroscopic continuum model prediction (size effect in plastic deformation). Here, the outcomes of this study indicate that the discrete-continuum multiscale model can accurately simulate the plastic deformation of micro-pillars, despite the significant uncertainty in the DDD results. Additionally, depending on the macroscopic features represented by the DDD simulations, the SGP model can reliably predict the size effect in plasticity responses of the micropillars with below 10% of error.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS2011

DBD Plasma Actuators for Flow Control in Air Vehicles and Jet Engines - Simulation of Flight Conditions in Test Chambers by Density Matching

Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) Plasma actuators for active flow control in aircraft and jet engines need to be tested in the laboratory to characterize their performance at flight operating conditions. DBD plasma actuators generate a wall-jet electronically by creating weakly ionized plasma, therefore their performance is affected by gas discharge properties, which, in turn, depend on the pressure and temperature at the actuator placement location. Characterization of actuators is initially performed in a laboratory chamber without external flow. The pressure and temperature at the actuator flight operation conditions need to be simultaneously set in the chamber. A simplified approach is desired. It is assumed that the plasma discharge depends only on the gas density, while other temperature effects are assumed to be negligible. Therefore, tests can be performed at room temperature with chamber pressure set to yield the same density as in operating flight conditions. The needed chamber pressures are shown for altitude flight of an air vehicle and for jet engines at sea-level takeoff and altitude cruise conditions. Atmospheric flight conditions are calculated from standard atmosphere with and without shock waves. The engine data was obtained from four generic engine models; 300-, 150-, and 50-passenger (PAX) aircraft engines, and a military jet-fighter engine. The static and total pressure, temperature, and density distributions along the engine were calculated for sea-level takeoff and for altitude cruise conditions. The corresponding chamber pressures needed to test the actuators were calculated. The results show that, to simulate engine component flows at in-flight conditions, plasma actuator should be tested over a wide range of pressures. For the four model engines the range is from 12.4 to 0.03 atm, depending on the placement of the actuator in the engine. For example, if a DBD plasma actuator is to be placed at the compressor exit of a 300 PAX engine, it has to be tested at 12.4 atm for takeoff, and 6 atm for cruise conditions. If it is to be placed at the low-pressure turbine, it has to be tested at 0.5 and 0.2 atm, respectively. These results have implications for the feasibility and design of DBD plasma actuators for jet engine flow control applications. In addition, the distributions of unit Reynolds number, Mach number, and velocity along the engine are provided. The engine models are non-proprietary and this information can be used for evaluation of other types of actuators and for other purposes.

Ashpis, David E.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Wormholes and black hole microstates in AdS/CFT

It has long been known that the coarse-grained approximation to the black hole density of states can be computed using classical Euclidean gravity. In this work we argue for another entry in the dictionary between Euclidean gravity and black hole physics, namely that Euclidean wormholes describe a coarse-grained approximation to the energy level statistics of black hole microstates. To do so we use the method of constrained instantons to obtain an integral representation of wormhole amplitudes in Einstein gravity and in full-fledged AdS/CFT. These amplitudes are non-perturbative corrections to the two-boundary problem in AdS quantum gravity. The full amplitude is likely UV sensitive, dominated by small wormholes, but we show it admits an integral transformation with a macroscopic, weakly curved saddle-point approximation. The saddle is the “double cone” geometry of Saad, Shenker, and Stanford, with fixed moduli. In the boundary description this saddle appears to dominate a smeared version of the connected two-point function of the black hole density of states, and suggests level repulsion in the microstate spectrum. Using these methods we further study Euclidean wormholes in pure Einstein gravity and in IIB supergravity on Euclidean AdS 5 × S 5 . We address the perturbative stability of these backgrounds and study brane nucleation instabilities in 10d supergravity. In particular, brane nucleation instabilities of the Euclidean wormholes are lifted by the analytic continuation required to obtain the Lorentzian spectral form factor from gravity. Our results indicate a factorization paradox in AdS/CFT.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electron correlation and incipient flat bands in the Kagome superconductor CsCr 3 Sb 5

Correlated kagome materials exhibit a compelling interplay between lattice geometry, electron correlation, and topology. In particular, the flat bands near the Fermi level provide a fertile playground for novel many-body states. Here we investigate the electronic structure of CsCr 3 Sb 5 using high-resolution angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy and ab-initio calculations. Our results suggest that Cr 3d electrons are intrinsically incoherent, showing strong electron correlation amplified by Hund’s coupling. Notably, we identify incipient flat bands close to the Fermi level, which are expected to significantly influence the electronic properties of the system. Across the density-wave-like transition at 55 K, we observe a drastic enhancement of the electron scattering rate, which aligns with the semiconducting-like property at high temperatures. These findings establish CsCr 3 Sb 5 as a strongly correlated Hund’s metal with incipient flat bands near the Fermi level, which provides an electronic basis for understanding its novel properties compared to the weakly correlated AV 3 Sb 5 .

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2021

Spectroscopic signature of negative electronic compressibility from the Ti core-level of titanium carbonitride MXene

Two-dimensional transition metal carbides, carbonitrides, and nitrides called MXenes exhibit high metallic conductivity, ion intercalation capability and reversible redox activity, prompting their applications in energy storage and conversion, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, and electronics, among many other fields. It has been shown that replacement of about 50% of carbon atoms in the most popular MXene family member, titanium carbide (Ti 3 C 2 T x ), by nitrogen atoms, forming titanium carbonitride (Ti 3 CNT x ), leads to drastically different properties, such as very high negative charge in solution and extreme EMI shielding effectiveness, exceeding all known materials, even metals at comparable thicknesses. Here, by using ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS), the electronic structures of Ti 3 CNT x and Ti 3 C 2 T x are systematically investigated and compared as a function of charge carrier density. We observe that, in contrast to Ti 3 C 2 T x , the Ti 3p core-level of Ti 3 CNT x exhibits a counterintuitive shift to a lower binding energy of up to approximately 250 meV upon increasing the electron density, which is a spectroscopic signature of negative electronic compressibility (NEC). These experimentally measured chemical potential shifts are well-captured by the density functional theory (DFT) calculation. The DFT results also further suggest that the hybridization of titanium-nitrogen bonding in Ti 3 CNT x helps promoting the available states of Ti atoms for receiving more electron above the Fermi level and leads to the observed NEC. Furthermore, our findings explain the differences in electronic properties between the two very important and widely studied MXenes and also suggest a new strategy to apply the NEC effect of Ti 3 CNT x in energy and charge storage applications.

2D materials↗
NASA NTRS1989

Laser gain on 3p-3d and 3s-3p transitions and X-ray line ratios for the nitrogen isoelectronic sequence

Results are presented on calculations of the 72 levels belonging to the 2s(2)2p(3), 2s2p(4), 2p(5), 2s(2)2p(2)3s, 2s(2)2p(2)3p, and 2s(2)2p(2)3d configurations of the N I isoelectronic sequence for the ions Ar XII, Ti XVI, Fe XX, Zn XXIV, and Kr XXX, for electron densities up to 10 to the 24th/cu cm. It was found that large population inversions and gain occur between levels in the 2s(2)2p(2)3p configuration and levels in the 2s(2)2p(2)3d configuration that cannot decay to the ground configuration by an electric dipole transition. For increasing electron densities, the intensities of the X-ray transitions from the 2s(2)2p(2)3p configuration to the ground configuration decrease relative to the transitions from the 2s(2)2p(2)3s and 2s(2)2p(2)3d configurations to the ground configuration. The density dependence of these X-ray line ratios is presented.

Feldman, U.↗
NASA NTRS1994

An investigation of magnetic field effects on plume density and temperature profiles of an applied-field MPD thruster

Applied-field magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster performance is below levels required for primary propulsion missions. While MPD thruster performance has been found to increase with the magnitude of the applied-field strength, there is currently little understanding of the impact of applied-field shape on thruster performance. The results of a study in which a single applied-field thruster was operated using three solenoidal magnets with diameters of 12.7, 15.2, and 30.4-cm are presented. Thruster voltage and anode power deposition were measured for each applied field shape over a range of field strengths. Plume electron number density and temperature distributions were measured using a Langmuir probe in an effort to determine the effect of field shape on plume confinement by the diverging magnetic-field for each of the three magnetic field shapes. Results show that the dependence of the measured thruster characteristics on field shape were non-monotonic and that the field shape had a significant effect on the plume density and temperature profiles.

Bullock, S. Ray↗
NASA NTRS2002

Properties of the -513 km/s Ejecta in the Spectrum of Eta Carinae

In the spectral region 2400-3160A of Eta Carinae, we have identified approximately 500 absorption lines each with up to twenty velocity components. The -512 kilometers per second component is truely unique as 1) the typical line width is less than 3 kilometers per second, 2) the identified lines are in Fe I, Fe II, V II and Ti II, and 3) the lines originate from lower levels up to 2000 cm-1 above the ground level. We have measured the velocity centers, full width at half maximum and equivalent widths for approximately 100 absorption lines. Initial results were very confusing as we found more variation in central velocities than would be expected from known STIS echelle wavelength standards. Upon further review, we found that the reporteded wavelengths in the NIST and Kurucz databases were not sufficiently accurate. S. Johansson searched FTS laboratory measurements performed at Lund for V II and Ti II and provided much improved wavelength measures. Likewise, we find more variation in column density than expected statistically from the accuracy of the equivalent widths for lines originating from the same energy level. We are reviewing the published gf values and our measurements to improve the measured column densities. Some spectroscopy of the ejecta has already been accomplished at two different epochs. Preliminary measures of equivalent widths indicate there may be some variation with time, but we await measurements planned for July 2003 during the upcoming spectroscopic minimum of Eta Carinae. These observations were accomplished through STScI and funding was from STIS GTO resources.

Danks, Anthony↗
NASA NTRS2003

Properties of the -513 km/s Ejecta in the Spectrum of Eta Carinae

In the spectral region 2400-3160A of Eta Carinae, we have identified approximately 500 absorption lines each with up to twenty velocity components. The -512 kilometers per second component is truly unique as 1) the typical line width is less than 3 kilometers per second, 2) the identified lines are in Fe I, Fe II, VII and Ti II, and 3) the lines originate from lower levels up to 2000 cm-1 above the ground level. We have measured the velocity centers, full width at half maximum and equivalent widths for approximately 100 absorption lines. Initial results were very confusing as we found bore variation in central velocities than would be expected from known STIS echelle wavelength standards. Upon further review, we found that the reported wavelengths in the NIST and Kurucz databases were not sufficiently accurate. S. Johansson searched FTS laboratory measurements performed at Lund for V II and Ti II and provided much improved wavelength measures. Likewise, we find more variation in column density than expected statistically from the accuracy of the equivalent widths for lines originating from the same energy level. We are reviewing the published gf values and our measurements to improve the measured column densities. Some spectroscopy of the ejecta has already been accomplished at two different epochs. Preliminary measures of equivalent widths indicate there may be some variation with time, but we await measurements planned for July 2003 during the upcoming spectroscopic minimum of Eta Carinae. The observations were accomplished through STScI and funding was from STIS GTO resources.

Danks, A.↗
DOE OSTI2025

MOSCATO Development and Integration in Fiscal Year 2025: Implementation of Multiphase, Multiphysics Modeling Capabilities for Molten Salt Systems

MOSCATO (Molten Salt Chemistry and Transport) is a multiphysics code that provides high-fidelity, coupled simulations of fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer, chemistry, electrochemical phenomena, and alloy corrosion for molten salt systems. In FY25, significant developments were made to the code package, enhancing its capabilities for modeling all relevant phenomena within operating moltens salt reactors (MSRs). The developments and activities in FY25 included: 1. Implementation of Level-Set methods to enable modeling of single-bubble behavior in molten salts. In FY25, the Level-Set two-phase flow modeling implementation was improved to simulate single bubble behavior with molten salt media. The large density and viscosity ratios between typical gases and molten salt liquids present challenges for these types of numerical solvers. With enhancements to the pressure projection method, MOSCATO’s Level-Set solver was able to be successfully validated to experiments related to helium bubble rise in stagnant molten salt. The simulated bubble rising velocity showed reasonable good agreement with experimental measurements. The bubble shape and dynamics were also visually compared with experimental snapshots, demonstrating a good qualitative match. 2. Generation of mass transfer correlations for multiphase flow systems. To enable calculations of the tritium transport across the interface between gas bubbles and salt, we modeled high- Schmidt-number mass transfer around a sphere across a broad range of Reynolds numbers. The mesh near the sphere surface was highly refined to resolve steep concentration gradients caused by the low diffusion coefficient. Literature-based mass transfer correlations were compared with the numerical results, and modifications were proposed to improve agreement, particularly at higher Schmidt numbers. These mass transfer correlations were subsequently provided to other national laboratories to help enable high quality mass transfer simulations using lower-order solvers under development within the NEAMS program. 3. Preliminary implementation of a bubbly flow solver. To model bubbly flow in molten salt, we implemented a bubbly flow solver for void fractions less than 5%. To do so, an algebraic relative velocity model that assumes small bubbles with rapid momentum equilibration was added to MOSCATO to compute bubble velocities. Preliminary comparisons with experimental data showed reasonable agreement, and further improvements are underway. 4. Generation of mass transfer correlations for MSRE subchannel The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) was a landmark historical project that demonstrated the feasibility of molten-salt reactor technology. The MSRE campaign also generated a significant body of experimental data and reports that continue to support molten-salt–related research. In this report, the MSRE core subchannel was used as the reference geometry for a mass transfer study performed with MOSCATO. The geometry and computational mesh were adapted from a previous study, providing adequate resolution for the relatively low Reynolds number in this case. Additional mesh refinement was applied to reach higher Schmidt numbers, enabling the derivation of a reliable mass-transfer correlation for the present scenario. 5. Simulations of oxygen ingressions into molten salt. In the previous fiscal year, we initiated a study to simulate oxygen ingression in stagnant salt. As oxygen enters the salt through its surface, it reacts with Ce 3+ to form solid CeO 2 and other reaction products. To more fully capture the complex diffusion-convection-reaction mechanisms, capabilities for modeling natural convection in the salt vessel were added. These were needed as the flow of the ingressed gas induced flow in the salt caused by surface shear and non-isothermal effects. With these updated physics in place, we were able to successfully reproduce the experimental results for the rate of change of CeCl 3 concentrations versus time. 6. Flow corrosion model validation. In FY24, MOSCATO’s corrosion model was validated against static corrosion experiments. In FY25, this work was extended to a flow corrosion experiment, where FLiNaK salt was driven by natural convection, with initial salt impurities to initiate corrosion. Despite uncertainties in parameters such as elemental diffusion coefficients in the alloy and unknown H + concentrations, the simulations achieved good agreement with experimental results, especially in predicting sample mass losses.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mortality correlates with tree functional traits across a wood density gradient in the Central Amazon

Introduction: Understanding the mechanisms of tree mortality in tropical ecosystems remains challenging, in part due to the high diversity of tree species and the inherently stochastic nature of mortality. Plant functional traits offer a mechanistic link between plant physiology and performance, yet their ability to predict growth and mortality remains poorly understood. Given recent increases in tree mortality rates in the Amazon forest following extreme drought and wind events, we tested if lower wood density and acquisitive plant functional traits were associated with increased growth and mortality for common co-occurring trees in the Central Amazon. Methods: Seventeen trees of different species with similar sizes but a range in wood density (WD) and wood traits were felled, then assessed for 27 different individual functional parameters, including whole tree architecture, stem xylem anatomical and hydraulic traits and leaf traits. Traits of the individual trees were related to stand-level growth and mortality rates collected periodically over 30 years from nearby permanent inventory plots. Results: Higher wood density was associated with smaller leaf size, lower foliar base cations, lower stem water content and sapwood fraction, in agreement with the fast-slow plant economics spectrum. Lower wood density was associated with more acquisitive characteristics with greater hydraulic capacity and foliar nutrient concentrations, correlating with greater growth and mortality rates. Discussion: Our results show that lower wood density is part of a coordinated suite of traits linked to high resource acquisition, fast growth, and increased mortality risk, providing a functional framework for predicting species performance and forest vulnerability under future climate stress.

demographics↗
NASA NTRS1987

Measurements of the free stream fluctuations above a turbulent boundary layer

This paper investigates the velocity fluctuations in the free stream above an incompressible turbulent boundary layer developing at constant pressure. It is assumed that the fluctuations receive contributions from three statistically independent sources: (1) one-dimensional unsteadiness, (2) free stream turbulence, and (3) the potential motion induced by the turbulent boundary layer. Measurements were made in a wind tunnel with a root-mean-square level of the axial velocity fluctuations of about 0.2 percent. All three velocity components were measured using an X-wire probe. The unsteadiness was determined from the spanwise covariance of the axial velocity, measured using two single wire probes. The results show that it is possible to separate the contributions to the r.m.s. level of the velocity fluctuations, without resorting to the dubious technique of high-pass filtering. The separation could be extended to the spectral densities of the contributions, if measurements of sufficient accuracy were available. The Appendix provides a general guide for the measurement of small free stream fluctuation levels.

Wood, David H.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Waffle Homes: Utilizing Aerial Imagery of Unfinished Buildings to Determine Average Room Size

A primary function of the Population Density Tables Project (PDT) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory is to produce residential population densities per 1000 sq. ft. for each country and their associated first-level administrative units. This is accomplished by utilizing the average size of different types of dwelling areas (urban, rural, single-family, multi-family, etc.) and the average household size provided by a country’s Census or statistical bureau records. This data is available for the majority of Europe, North America, and large swathes of Asia, but is less easily found in Africa and South America. In these regions, Censuses generally report dwelling area by number of rooms, which poses the challenging question of how we can translate number of rooms to dwelling size when no dwelling size areas are available with which to compare. Using sub-meter resolution satellite imagery of Accra, Ghana, this challenge can be tackled using imagery of roofless buildings currently under construction that show the interior floor plan of the dwelling. A sample of buildings from the different neighborhoods of Accra can be digitized to provide an estimate and range of average room sizes of dwellings. This average room size can then be translated to a total dwelling area using the "number of rooms occupied by a household" variable from the Ghanaian Census. This intermediate step between average dwelling size and number of rooms occupied, fills the missing link that prevents PDT from continually producing new population densities for countries where dwelling size is unavailable through any official means.

Woody, Carson↗