The Light Curve of Periodic Comet Wirtanen
Teh light curve of Periodic Comet Wirtanen has been analyzed for the 1986 and 1991 apparitions, the only two monitored by visual observers.
Wirtanen comet light curve periodic comets apparit↗
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Mascon distribution techniques for asteroids and comets
The mass-concentration model is an approach that has been used to model the gravitational fields of irregularly shaped bodies such as asteroids and comets. By this approach, the body is treated as a collection of point masses. The method is conceptually simple, easy to program, valid down to the surface, and capable of modeling arbitrary density heterogeneities. How the mass concentrations are distributed as well as how mass is assigned to these concentrations is, however, nontrivial. These aspects significantly affect the accuracy and efficiency of the gravitational model. In this paper, we frame the distribution process in terms of numerical integration applied to finite volume meshes. We describe a new method using unstructured, curvilinear, finite volume meshes to significantly improve the accuracy of the mass-concentration model. We then compare the accuracy and efficiency of several variations of our distribution technique to those from literature using Asteroid Eros and Bennu as example bodies. Our results show that the mascon model can be as accurate as the analytic polyhedral model at the surface using an equivalent number of computational elements—i.e., mascon to surface facets. We report the improvement in the model’s performance can be mainly attributed to the volume mesh topology while mesh curving can provide modest case-dependent improvements.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
Comets and carbonaceous chondrites delivered noble gases to the Moon
Trapped xenon isotopes in two Apollo 17 mare basalt fragments are similar to those in primitive meteorites. Xenon would have been effectively excluded from the Moon in the aftermath of its formation in a giant impact. As such, lunar mantle xenon trapped in the mare basalts is best explained as being derived from late accretion occurring before or concurrent with the formation of the lunar crust. Here, the isotopic composition indicates that a combination of comets and carbonaceous chondrites delivered this xenon to the lunar mantle. The inferred mass of accreted cometary ice would have delivered significantly less than a part per million of water to the lunar mantle. The inferred mass of accreted carbonaceous chondrites would have supplied at least a half of a part per million of water. The data further indicate that enstatite chondrites are unlikely to have supplied the majority of late accreted mass.
Chemistry↗
Hubble space telescope investigation of main-belt comet 133P/Elst-Pizarro
We report new observations of the prototype main-belt comet (active asteroid) 133P/Elst-Pizarro taken at high angular resolution using the Hubble Space Telescope. The object has three main components: (1) a point-like nucleus; (2) a long, narrow antisolar dust tail; and (3) a short, sunward anti-tail. There is no resolved coma. The nucleus has a mean absolute magnitude H{sub V} = 15.70 ± 0.10 and a light curve range ΔV = 0.42 mag, the latter corresponding to projected dimensions 3.6 × 5.4 km (axis ratio 1.5:1) at the previously measured geometric albedo of 0.05 ± 0.02. We explored a range of continuous and impulsive emission models to simultaneously fit the measured surface brightness profile, width, and position angle of the antisolar tail. Preferred fits invoke protracted emission, over a period of 150 days or less, of dust grains following a differential power-law size distribution with index 3.25 ≤q ≤ 3.5 and with a wide range of sizes. Ultra-low surface brightness dust projected in the sunward direction is a remnant from emission activity occurring in previous orbits, and consists of the largest (≥cm-sized) particles. Ejection velocities of one-micron-sized particles are comparable to the ∼1.8 m s{sup –1} gravitational escape speed of the nucleus, while larger particles are released at speeds less than the gravitational escape velocity. The observations are consistent with, but do not prove, a hybrid hypothesis in which mass loss is driven by gas drag from the sublimation of near-surface water ice, but escape is aided by centripetal acceleration from the rotation of the elongated nucleus. No plausible alternative hypothesis has been identified.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
PRESOLAR GRAINS FROM NOVAE: EVIDENCE FROM NEON AND HELIUM ISOTOPES IN COMET DUST COLLECTIONS
Presolar grains in meteorites and interplanetary dust particles carry non-solar isotopic signatures pointing to origins in supernovae, giant stars, and possibly other stellar sources. There have been suggestions that some of these grains condensed in the ejecta of classical nova outbursts, but the evidence is ambiguous. We report neon and helium compositions in particles captured on stratospheric collectors flown to sample materials from comets 26P/Grigg-Skjellerup and 55P/Tempel-Tuttle that point to condensation of their gas carriers in the ejecta of a neon (ONe) nova. The absence of detectable {sup 3}He in these particles indicates space exposure to solar wind irradiation of a few decades at most, consistent with origins in cometary dust streams. Measured {sup 4}He/{sup 20}Ne, {sup 20}Ne/{sup 22}Ne, {sup 21}Ne/{sup 22}Ne, and {sup 20}Ne/{sup 21}Ne isotope ratios, and a low upper limit on {sup 3}He/{sup 4}He, are in accord with calculations of nucleosynthesis in neon nova outbursts. Of these, the uniquely low {sup 4}He/{sup 20}Ne and high {sup 20}Ne/{sup 22}Ne ratios are the most diagnostic, reflecting the large predicted {sup 20}Ne abundances in the ejecta of such novae. The correspondence of measured Ne and He compositions in cometary matter with theoretical predictions is evidence for the presence of presolar grains from novae in the early solar system.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
SIZE AND DENSITY ESTIMATION FROM IMPACT TRACK MORPHOLOGY IN SILICA AEROGEL: APPLICATION TO DUST FROM COMET 81P/WILD 2
A large number of cometary dust particles were captured with low-density silica aerogel during the NASA Stardust mission. The dust particles penetrated into the aerogel and formed various track shapes. To estimate the properties of the dust particles, such as density and size, based on the morphology of the tracks, we carried out systematic experiments testing impacts into low-density aerogel at 6 km s{sup -1} using projectiles of various sizes and densities. We found that the maximum track diameter and the ratio of the track length to the maximum track diameter in aerogel are good indicators of projectile size and density, respectively. Based on these results, we estimated the size and density of individual dust particles from comet 81P/Wild 2. The average density of the 'fluffy' dust particles and the bulk density of all dust particles were obtained as 0.35 {+-} 0.07 and 0.49 {+-} 0.18 g cm{sup -3}, respectively. These statistical data provided the content of monolithic and coarse grains in the Stardust particles, {approx}30 wt%. Combining this result with some mid-infrared observational data, we found that the content of crystalline silicates is {approx}50 wt% or more of non-volatile material.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL FORMATION OF ORGANIC SOLIDS IN CHONDRITES AND COMETS THROUGH POLYMERIZATION OF INTERSTELLAR FORMALDEHYDE
Polymerization of interstellar formaldehyde, first through the formose reaction and then through subsequent condensation reactions, provides a plausible explanation for how abundant and highly chemically complex organic solids may have come to exist in primitive solar system objects. In order to gain better insight on the reaction, a systematic study of the relationship of synthesis temperature with resultant molecular structure was performed. In addition, the effect of the presence of ammonia on the reaction rate and molecular structure of the product was studied. The synthesized formaldehyde polymer is directly compared to chondritic insoluble organic matter (IOM) isolated from primitive meteorites using solid-state {sup 13}C nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared, and X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy. The molecular structure of the formaldehyde polymer is shown to exhibit considerable similarity at the functional group level with primitive chondritic IOM. The addition of ammonia to the solution enhances the rate of polymerization reaction at lower temperatures and results in substantial incorporation of nitrogen into the polymer. Morphologically, the formaldehyde polymer exists as submicron to micron-sized spheroidal particles and spheroidal particle aggregates that bare considerable similarity to the organic nanoglobules commonly observed in chondritic IOM. These spectroscopic and morphological data support the hypothesis that IOM in chondrites and refractory organic carbon in comets may have formed through the polymerization of interstellar formaldehyde after planetesimal accretion, in the presence of liquid water, early in the history of the solar system.
37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
Coupled escape probability for an asymmetric spherical case: Modeling optically thick comets
We have adapted Coupled Escape Probability, a new exact method of solving radiative transfer problems, for use in asymmetrical spherical situations. Our model is intended specifically for use in modeling optically thick cometary comae, although not limited to such use. This method enables the accurate modeling of comets' spectra even in the potentially optically thick regions nearest the nucleus, such as those seen in Deep Impact observations of 9P/Tempel 1 and EPOXI observations of 103P/Hartley 2.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
The solar corona as probed by comet Lovejoy (C/2011 W3)
Extreme-ultraviolet images of Comet Lovejoy (C/2011 W3) from the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly show striations related to the magnetic field structure in both open and closed magnetic regions. The brightness contrast implies coronal density contrasts of at least a factor of six between neighboring flux tubes over scales of a few thousand kilometers. These density structures imply variations in the Alfvén speed on a similar scale. They will drastically affect the propagation and dissipation of Alfvén waves, and that should be taken into account in models of coronal heating and solar wind acceleration. In each striation, the cometary emission moves along the magnetic field and broadens with time. The speed and the rate of broadening are related to the parallel and perpendicular components of the velocities of the cometary neutrals when they become ionized. We use a magnetohydrodynamic model of the coronal magnetic field and the theory of pickup ions to compare the measurements with theoretical predictions, in particular with the energy lost to Alfvén waves as the cometary ions isotropize.
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ON THE POSSIBILITY OF SIGNIFICANT ELECTRON DEPLETION DUE TO NANOGRAIN CHARGING IN THE COMA OF COMET 67P/CHURYUMOV-GERASIMENKO NEAR PERIHELION
We approach the complicated phenomena of gas-dust interactions in a cometary ionosphere, focusing in particular on the possibility of significant depletion in electron number density due to grain charging. Our one-dimensional ionospheric model, accounting for grain charging processes, is applied to the subsolar direction and the diamagnetic cavity of 67P/Churyuomov-Gerasimenko, the target comet for the ESA Rosetta mission, at perihelion (∼1.25-1.30 AU). We argue on the one hand that grains with radii >100 nm are unlikely to significantly affect the overall ionospheric particle balance within this environment, at least for cometocentric distances >10 km. On the other hand, if nanograins with radii in the 1-3 nm range are ejected to the coma at a level of ∼1% with respect to the mass of the sublimated gas, a significant electron depletion is expected up to cometocentric distances of several tens of kilometers. We relate these results to the recent Cassini discoveries of very pronounced electron depletion compared with the positive ion population in the plume of Enceladus, which has been attributed to nanograin charging.
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STRONG EROSION-DRIVEN NONGRAVITATIONAL EFFECTS IN ORBITAL MOTIONS OF THE KREUTZ SUNGRAZING SYSTEM’S DWARF COMETS
We investigate the relationships among the angular orbital elements—the longitude of the ascending node Ω, the inclination i, and the argument of perihelion ω—of the Kreutz system’s faint, dwarf sungrazers observed only with the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory/STEREO coronagraphs; their published orbits were derived using a parabolic, purely gravitational approximation. In a plot of i against Ω the bright Kreutz sungrazers (such as C/1843 D1, C/1882 R1, C/1963 R1, etc.) fit a curve of fixed apsidal orientation, whereas the dwarf members are distributed along a curve that makes with the apsidal curve an angle of 15°. The dwarf sungrazers’ perihelion longitude is statistically invariable, but their perihelion latitude increases systematically with Ω. We find that this trend can be explained by a strong erosion-driven nongravitational acceleration normal to the orbit plane, confirmed for several test dwarf Kreutz sungrazers by orbital solutions with nongravitational terms incorporated directly in the equations of motion on a condition of fixed apsidal orientation. Proceeding in three steps, we first apply Marsden et al.'s standard formalism, solving for the normal acceleration only, and eventually relax additional constraints on the nongravitational law and the acceleration’s radial and transverse components. The resulting nongravitational accelerations on the dwarf sungrazers exceed the maximum for cataloged comets in nearly parabolic orbits by up to three orders of magnitude, topping in exceptional cases the Sun’s gravitational acceleration! A mass-loss model suggests that the dwarf sungrazers’ nuclei fragment copiously and their dimensions diminish rapidly near the Sun, implying the objects’ imminent demise shortly before they reach perihelion.
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INFRARED AND OPTICAL IMAGINGS OF THE COMET 2P/ENCKE DUST CLOUD IN THE 2003 RETURN
We report contemporaneous imaging observations of the short-period comet 2P/Encke in infrared and optical wavelengths during the 2003 return. Both images show the same unique morphology consisting of a spiky dust cloud near the nucleus and a dust trail extending along the orbit. We conducted a dynamical simulation of dust particles to characterize the morphology and found that dust particles were ejected intensively for a short duration (≲10 days) a few days after perihelion passage. The maximum particle size is at least on the order of 1 cm in radius following a differential power-law size distribution with an index of −3.2 to −3.6. The total mass ejected in the 2003 return is at least 1.5 × 10{sup 9}–1.2 × 10{sup 10} kg, which corresponds to 0.003%–0.03% of the nucleus mass. We derived the albedo of the dust cloud as 0.01–0.04 at a solar phase angle of 26.°2, which is consistent with or possibly greater than that of the nucleus. We suppose that impulsive activity such as an outburst is a key to understanding the peculiar appearance of 2P/Encke.
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ON THE DUST ENVIRONMENT OF MAIN-BELT COMET 313 P/Gibbs
We present observations carried out using the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio Canarias and an interpretative model of the dust environment of activated asteroid 313 P/Gibbs. We discuss three different models relating to different values of the dust parameters, i.e., dust loss rate, maximum and minimum sizes of particles, power index of the size distribution, and emission pattern. The best model corresponds to an isotropic emission of particles which started on August 1. The sizes of grains were in the range of 0.1−2000 μm, with velocities for 100 μm particles between 0.4−1.9 m s{sup −1}, with a dust production rate in the range of 0.2−0.8 kg s{sup −1}. The dust tails’ brightnesses and morphologies are best interpreted in terms of a model of sustained and low dust emission driven by water-ice sublimation, spanning since 2014 August 1, and triggered by a short impulsive event. This event produced an emission of small particles of about 0.1 μm with velocities of ∼4 m s{sup −1}. From our model we deduce that the activity of this main-belt comet continued for at least four months since activation.
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Gone in a blaze of glory: The demise of comet C/2015 D1 (SOHO)
We present studies of C/2015 D1 (SOHO), the first sunskirting comet ever seen from ground stations over the past half century. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) witnessed its peculiar light curve with a huge dip followed by a flare-up around perihelion: the dip was likely caused by sublimation of olivines, directly evidenced by a coincident temporary disappearance of the tail. The flare-up likely reflects a disintegration event, which we suggest was triggered by intense thermal stress established within the nucleus interior. Photometric data reveal an increasingly dusty coma, indicative of volatile depletion. A catastrophic mass-loss rate of ∼10{sup 5} kg s{sup −1} around perihelion was seen. Ground-based Xingming Observatory spotted the post-perihelion debris cloud. Our morphological simulations of post-perihelion images find newly released dust grains of size a ≳ 10 μm in radius; however, a temporal increase in a{sub min} was also witnessed, possibly owing to swift dispersions of smaller grains swept away by radiation forces without replenishment. Together with the fading profile of the light curve, a power-law dust size distribution with index γ = 3.2 ± 0.1 is derived. We detected no active remaining cometary nuclei over ∼0.1 km in radius in post-perihelion images acquired at Lowell Observatory. Applying a radial nongravitational parameter, A{sub 1}=(1.209±0.118)×10{sup −6} AU day{sup −2}, from an isothermal water–ice sublimation model to the SOHO astrometry significantly reduces residuals and sinusoidal trends in the orbit determination. The nucleus mass ∼10{sup 8}–10{sup 9} kg and the radius ∼50–150 m (bulk density ρ{sub d} = 0.4 g cm{sup −3} assumed) before the disintegration are deduced from the photometric data; consistent results were determined from the nongravitational effects.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
THE DUST ENVIRONMENT OF MAIN-BELT COMET P/2010 R2 (LA SAGRA)
We present a model of the dust environment of Main-Belt Comet P/2010 R2 (La Sagra) from images acquired during the period 2010 October-2011 January. The tails are best simulated by anisotropic ejection models, with emission concentrated near the nucleus south pole, the spin axis having an obliquity near 90{sup 0}, indicative of a possible seasonally driven behavior. The dust mass loss rate increases rapidly shortly before perihelion, reaching a maximum value of {approx}4 kg s{sup -1}, and maintaining a sustained, cometary-like, activity of about 3-4 kg s{sup -1} up to at least 200 days after perihelion, the date of the latest observation. The size distribution function is characterized by particles in the 5 x 10{sup -4} cm to 1 cm radius range, assuming a time-constant power-law distribution with an index of -3.5. The ejection velocities are compatible with water-ice sublimation activity at the heliocentric distance of 2.7 AU, with values of 10-20 cm s{sup -1} for particle radius of 1 cm, and inverse square root dependence on particle size, typical of hydrodynamical gas drag.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
INCORPORATION OF A LATE-FORMING CHONDRULE INTO COMET WILD 2
We report the petrology, O isotopic composition, and Al-Mg isotope systematics of a chondrule fragment from the Jupiter-family comet Wild 2, returned to Earth by NASA's Stardust mission. This object shows characteristics of a type II chondrule that formed from an evolved oxygen isotopic reservoir. No evidence for extinct {sup 26}Al was found, with ({sup 26}Al/{sup 27}Al){sub 0} < 3.0 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -6}. Assuming homogenous distribution of {sup 26}Al in the solar nebula, this particle crystallized at least 3 Myr after the earliest solar system objects-relatively late compared to most chondrules in meteorites. We interpret the presence of this object in a Kuiper Belt body as evidence of late, large-scale transport of small objects between the inner and outer solar nebula. Our observations constrain the formation of Jupiter (a barrier to outward transport if it formed further from the Sun than this cometary chondrule) to be more than 3 Myr after calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
A SHORT-DURATION EVENT AS THE CAUSE OF DUST EJECTION FROM MAIN-BELT COMET P/2012 F5 (GIBBS)
We present observations and an interpretative model of the dust environment of the Main-Belt Comet P/2010 F5 (Gibbs). The narrow dust trails observed can be interpreted unequivocally as an impulsive event that took place around 2011 July 1 with an uncertainty of {+-}10 days, and a duration of less than a day, possibly of the order of a few hours. The best Monte Carlo dust model fits to the observed trail brightness imply ejection velocities in the range 8-10 cm s{sup -1} for particle sizes between 30 cm and 130 {mu}m. This weak dependence of velocity on size contrasts with that expected from ice sublimation and agrees with that found recently for (596) Scheila, a likely impacted asteroid. The particles seen in the trail are found to follow a power-law size distribution of index Almost-Equal-To -3.7. Assuming that the slowest particles were ejected at the escape velocity of the nucleus, its size is constrained to about 200-300 m in diameter. The total ejected dust mass is {approx}> 5 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 8} kg, which represents approximately 4%-20% of the nucleus mass.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
COMET ENCOUNTERS AND CARBON 14
The {sup 14}C production of shock-accelerated particles is calculated in terms of the total energy released in energetic particles. The recently reported 1.2% jump in the {sup 14}C content of the atmosphere in the year C.E. 775, it is found, would require {approx}> 10{sup 34} erg in energetic particles, less than first estimates but far more than any known solar flare on record. It is noted that the superflare from a large comet (comparable to C/Hale-Bopp) colliding with the sun could produce shock-accelerated GeV cosmic rays in the solar corona and/or solar wind, and possibly account for the C.E. 775 event. Several additional predictions of cometary encounters with the sun and other stars may be observable in the future.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗