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At least 1,621 records · Page 90

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NASA NTRS1974

Skylab radar altimeter - Short-wavelength perturbations detected in ocean surface profiles

Short-wavelength anomalies in sea surface topography, caused by the gravitational effects of major ocean bottom topographic features, have been detected by the radar altimeter aboard Skylab. Some features, such as deep ocean trenches, seamounts, and escarpments, displace the ocean surface by as much as 15 meters over 100-kilometer wavelengths. This experiment demonstrates the potential of satellite altimetry for determining the ocean geoid and for mapping major features of the ocean bottom.

Leitao, C. D.↗

NASA NTRS1991

A study of the response of nonlinear springs

The various phases to developing a methodology for studying the response of a spring-reinforced arch subjected to a point load are discussed. The arch is simply supported at its ends with both the spring and the point load assumed to be at midspan. The spring is present to off-set the typical snap through behavior normally associated with arches, and to provide a structure that responds with constant resistance over a finite displacement. The various phases discussed consist of the following: (1) development of the closed-form solution for the shallow arch case; (2) development of a finite difference analysis to study (shallow) arches; and (3) development of a finite element analysis for studying more general shallow and nonshallow arches. The two numerical analyses rely on a continuation scheme to move the solution past limit points, and to move onto bifurcated paths, both characteristics being common to the arch problem. An eigenvalue method is used for a continuation scheme. The finite difference analysis is based on a mixed formulation (force and displacement variables) of the governing equations. The governing equations for the mixed formulation are in first order form, making the finite difference implementation convenient. However, the mixed formulation is not well-suited for the eigenvalue continuation scheme. This provided the motivation for the displacement based finite element analysis. Both the finite difference and the finite element analyses are compared with the closed form shallow arch solution. Agreement is excellent, except for the potential problems with the finite difference analysis and the continuation scheme. Agreement between the finite element analysis and another investigator's numerical analysis for deep arches is also good.

Hyer, M. W.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Materials for Shielding Astronauts from the Hazards of Space Radiations

One major obstacle to human space exploration is the possible limitations imposed by the adverse effects of long-term exposure to the space environment. Even before human spaceflight began, the potentially brief exposure of astronauts to the very intense random solar energetic particle (SEP) events was of great concern. A new challenge appears in deep space exploration from exposure to the low-intensity heavy-ion flux of the galactic cosmic rays (GCR) since the missions are of long duration and the accumulated exposures can be high. Because cancer induction rates increase behind low to rather large thickness of aluminum shielding according to available biological data on mammalian exposures to GCR like ions, the shield requirements for a Mars mission are prohibitively expensive in terms of mission launch costs. Preliminary studies indicate that materials with high hydrogen content and low atomic number constituents are most efficient in protecting the astronauts. This occurs for two reasons: the hydrogen is efficient in breaking up the heavy GCR ions into smaller less damaging fragments and the light constituents produce few secondary radiations (especially few biologically damaging neutrons). An overview of the materials related issues and their impact on human space exploration will be given.

Wilson, J. W.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Radiation exposure for human Mars exploration

One major obstacle to human space exploration is the possible limitations imposed by the adverse effects of long-term exposure to the space environment. Even before human space flight began, the potentially brief exposure of astronauts to the very intense random solar energetic particle events was of great concern. A new challenge appears in deep-space exploration from exposure to the low-intensity heavy-ion flux of the galactic cosmic rays since the missions are of long duration, and accumulated exposures can be high. Because cancer induction rates increase behind low to moderate thicknesses of aluminum shielding, according to available biological data on mammalian exposures to galactic cosmic ray-like ions, aluminum shield requirements for a Mars mission may be prohibitively expensive in terms of mission launch costs. Alternative materials for vehicle construction are under investigation to provide lightweight habitat structures with enhanced shielding properties. In the present paper, updated estimates for astronaut exposures on a Mars mission are presented and shielding properties of alternative materials are compared with aluminum.

NASA Center LaRC↗

NASA NTRS2005

X-Ray Fluorescence Solvent Detection at the Substrate-Adhesive Interface

With environmental regulations limiting the use of volatile organic compounds, low-vapor pressure solvents have replaced traditional degreasing solvents for bond substrate preparation. When used to clean and prepare porous bond substrates such as phenolic composites, low vapor pressure solvents can penetrate deep into substrate pore networks and remain there for extended periods. Trapped solvents can interact with applied adhesives either prior to or during cure, potentially compromising bond properties. Currently, methods for characterizing solvent time-depth profiles in bond substrates are limited to bulk gravimetric or sectioning techniques. While sectioning techniques such as microtome allow construction of solvent depth profiles, their depth resolution and reliability are limited by substrate type. Sectioning techniques are particularly limited near the adhesive-substrate interface where depth resolution is further limited by adhesive-substrate hardness and, in the case of a partially cured adhesive, mechanical properties differences. Additionally, sectioning techniques cannot provide information about lateral solvent diffusion. Cross-section component mapping is an alternative method for measuring solvent migration in porous substrates that eliminates the issues associated with sectioning techniques. With cross-section mapping, the solvent-wiped substrate is sectioned perpendicular rather than parallel to the wiped surface, and the sectioned surface is analyzed for the solvent or solvent components of interest using a two-dimensional mapping or imaging technique. Solvent mapping can be performed using either direct or indirect methods. With a direct method, one or more solvent components are mapped using red or Raman spectroscopy together with a moveable sample stage and/or focal plane array detector. With an indirect method, an elemental "tag" not present in the substrate is added to the solvent before the substrate is wiped. Following cross sectioning, the tag element can then be mapped by its characteristic x-ray emission using either x-ray fluorescence, or electron-beam energy-and wavelength-dispersive x-ray spectrometry. The direct mapping techniques avoid issues of different diffusion or migration rates of solvents and elemental tags, while the indirect techniques avoid spectral resolution issues in cases where solvents and substrates have adjacent or overlapping peaks. In this study, cross-section component indirect mapping is being evaluated as a method for measuring migration of d-limonene based solvents in glass-cloth phenolic composite (GCP) prior to and during subsequent bonding and epoxy adhesive cure.

Wurth, Laura↗

NASA NTRS2005

A Survey of the Rapidly Emerging Field of Nanotechnology: Potential Applications for Scientific Instruments and Technologies for Atmospheric Entry Probes

The field of Nanotechnology is well funded worldwide and innovations applicable to Solar System Exploration are emerging much more rapidly than thought possible just a few years ago. This presentation will survey recent innovations from nanotechnololgy with a focus on novel applications to atmospheric entry science and probe technology, in a fashion similar to that presented by Arnold and Venkatapathy at the previous workshop forum at Lisbon Portugal, October 6-9, 2003. Nanotechnology is a rapidly emerging field that builds systems, devices and materials from the bottom up, atom by atom, and in so doing provides them with novel and remarkable macro-scale performance. This technology has the potential to revolutionize space exploration by reducing mass and simultaneously increasing capability. Thermal, Radiation, Impact Protective Shields: Atmospheric probes and humans on long duration deep space missions involved in Solar System Exploration must safely endure 3 significant hazards: (i) atmospheric entry; (ii) radiation; and (iii) micrometeorite or debris impact. Nanostructured materials could be developed to address all three hazards with a single protective shield, which would involve much less mass than a traditional approach. The concept can be ready in time for incorporation into NASA s Crew Exploration Vehicle, and possible entry probes to fly on the Jupiter Icy Moons

Meyyappan, M.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Toolkits Control Motion of Complex Robotics

That space is a hazardous environment for humans is common knowledge. Even beyond the obvious lack of air and gravity, the extreme temperatures and exposure to radiation make the human exploration of space a complicated and risky endeavor. The conditions of space and the space suits required to conduct extravehicular activities add layers of difficulty and danger even to tasks that would be simple on Earth (tightening a bolt, for example). For these reasons, the ability to scout distant celestial bodies and perform maintenance and construction in space without direct human involvement offers significant appeal. NASA has repeatedly turned to complex robotics for solutions to extend human presence deep into space at reduced risk and cost and to enhance space operations in low Earth orbit. At Johnson Space Center, engineers explore the potential applications of dexterous robots capable of performing tasks like those of an astronaut during extravehicular activities and even additional ones too delicate or dangerous for human participation. Johnson's Dexterous Robotics Laboratory experiments with a wide spectrum of robot manipulators, such as the Mitsubishi PA-10 and the Robotics Research K-1207i robotic arms. To simplify and enhance the use of these robotic systems, Johnson researchers sought generic control methods that could work effectively across every system.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS2013

Near-Earth Asteroid Retrieval Mission (ARM) Study

The Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM) concept brings together the capabilities of the science, technology, and the human exploration communities on a grand challenge combining robotic and human space exploration beyond low Earth orbit. This paper addresses the key aspects of this concept and the options studied to assess its technical feasibility. Included are evaluations of the expected number of potential targets, their expected discovery rate, the necessity to adequately characterize candidate mission targets, the process to capture a non-cooperative asteroid in deep space, and the power and propulsion technology required for transportation back to the Earth-Moon system. Viable options for spacecraft and mission designs are developed. Orbits for storing the retrieved asteroid that are stable for more than a hundred years, yet allow for human exploration and commercial utilization of a redirected asteroid, are identified. The study concludes that the key aspects of finding, capturing and redirecting an entire small, near-Earth asteroid to the Earth-Moon system by the first half of the next decade are technically feasible. The study was conducted from January 2013 through March 2013 by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in collaboration with Glenn Research Center (GRC), Johnson Space Center (JSC), Langley Research Center (LaRC), and Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP)↗

NASA NTRS2016

Applications and Innovations for Use of High Definition and High Resolution Digital Motion Imagery in Space Operations

The first live High Definition Television (HDTV) from a spacecraft was in November, 2006, nearly ten years before the 2016 SpaceOps Conference. Much has changed since then. Now, live HDTV from the International Space Station (ISS) is routine. HDTV cameras stream live video views of the Earth from the exterior of the ISS every day on UStream, and HDTV has even flown around the Moon on a Japanese Space Agency spacecraft. A great deal has been learned about the operations applicability of HDTV and high resolution imagery since that first live broadcast. This paper will discuss the current state of real-time and file based HDTV and higher resolution video for space operations. A potential roadmap will be provided for further development and innovations of high-resolution digital motion imagery, including gaps in technology enablers, especially for deep space and unmanned missions. Specific topics to be covered in the paper will include: An update on radiation tolerance and performance of various camera types and sensors and ramifications on the future applicability of these types of cameras for space operations; Practical experience with downlinking very large imagery files with breaks in link coverage; Ramifications of larger camera resolutions like Ultra-High Definition, 6,000 [pixels] and 8,000 [pixels] in space applications; Enabling technologies such as the High Efficiency Video Codec, Bundle Streaming Delay Tolerant Networking, Optical Communications and Bayer Pattern Sensors and other similar innovations; Likely future operations scenarios for deep space missions with extreme latency and intermittent communications links.

Grubbs, Rodney↗

NASA NTRS2018

Gravitational Potential and Non-relativistic Lagrangian in Modified Gravity with Varying G

We have recently shown that the baryonic Tully-Fisher (BTF) and Faber-Jackson (BFJ) relations imply that the gravitational "constant" G in the force law vary with acceleration alpha as 1/alpha . Here we derive the converse from first principles. First we obtain the gravitational potential for all accelerations and we formulate the Lagrangian for the central-force problem. Then action minimization implies the BTF/BFJ relations in the deep MOND limit as well as weak-field Weyl gravity in the Newtonian limit. The results show how we can properly formulate a nonrelativistic conformal theory of modified dynamics that reduces to MOND in its low-acceleration limit and to Weyl gravity in the opposite limit. An unavoidable conclusion is that alpha-0 , the transitional acceleration in modified dynamics, does not have a cosmological origin and it may not even be constant among galaxies and galaxy clusters.

Christodoulou, Dimitris M.↗

NASA NTRS2020

Saharan Dust Aerosols Change Deep Convective Cloud Prevalence, Possibly by Inhibiting Marine New Particle Formation

Deep convective clouds (DCCs) are important to global climate, atmospheric chemistry, and precipitation. Dust, a dominant aerosol type over the tropical North Atlantic, has potentially large microphysical impacts on DCCs over this region. However, dust effects are difficult to identify, being confounded by co-varying meteorology and other factors. Here, a method is developed to quantify DCC responses to dust and other aerosols at large spatial and temporal scales despite these uncertainties. Over 7 million tropical North Atlantic cloud, aerosol, and meteorological profiles from CloudSat satellite data and MERRA-2 reanalysis products are used to stratify cloud observations into meteorological regimes, objectively select a priori assumptions, and iteratively test uncertainty sensitivity. Dust is robustly associated with a 54% increase in DCC prevalence. However, marine aerosol proxy concentrations are five times more predictive of dust-associated increases in DCC prevalence than the dust itself, or any other aerosol or meteorological factor. Marine aerosols are also the most predictive factor for the even larger increases in DCC prevalence (61-87%) associated with enhanced dimethyl sulfide and combustion and sulfate aerosols. Dust-associated increases in DCC prevalence are smaller at high dust concentrations than at low concentrations. These observations suggest that not only is dust a comparatively ineffective CCN source, but it may also act as a condensation/coagulation sink for chemical precursors to CCN, reducing total CCN availability over large spatial scales by inhibiting new particle formation from marine emissions. These observations represent the first time this rocess, previously predicted by models, is supported and quantified by measurements.

Aerosol-cloud interactions↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

American Society of Plant Biologists Plenary Symposium Overview Presentation

NASA’s Artemis program in collaboration with international space agencies, and various commercial partners, marks the return of humankind to the Moon. Unlike the Apollo lunar missions from fifty years ago, Artemis will set the stage for the continuous presence of humans on the Moon and pave a path for the journey to Mars and beyond. Plants will be an essential component of habitation systems that will enable humans to thrive on both the lunar and Mars surface, as well as space transit vehicles because of their nutritional and psychological benefits. Furthermore, plants will be valued in environmental control and life support systems because they generate oxygen, remove carbon dioxide, and recycle water and waste. However, an in-depth understanding of how plants and their associated microbial communities adapt to the harsh and confined environment of deep space is essential before they can be effectively used for long-duration space missions. This plenary symposium will address challenges and present potential solutions to growing plants in space. The four speakers will cover a broad range of topics, including mechanistic studies on fern resurgence after asteroid-triggered mass extinction events, artificial photosynthesis for space agriculture, and how the plant microbiome and an understanding of plant-pathogen dynamics in microgravity can guide crop production strategies in space.

Plant Space Biology↗

DOE OSTI2016

Developing Detectors for Scintillation Light in Liquid Argon for DUNE

The Deep Underground Neutrino experiment will conduct a broad program of physics research by studying a beam of neutrinos from Fermilab, atmospheric neutrinos, neutrinos from potential supernovae, and potential nucleon decay events. In pursuit of these studies, the experiment will deploy four 10kt fiducial mass liquid argon time projection chambers underground in Lead, South Dakota. Liquid argon time projection chambers allow high-resolution tracking and energy measurements. A precise timing signal is needed to provide the necessary time stamp to localize events in the drift direction. As liquid argon is a natural scintillator, a photon detection system will be deployed to provide such a signal, especially for non-beam events. In the baseline design for the single-phase time projection chamber, the detectors are contained within the anode plane assemblies. The design of two prototypes utilizing wavelength shifters and light guides are presented, and aspects of the research and development program are discussed.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2018

Toward Super Hot EGS: The Newberry Deep Drilling Project

Newberry Volcano in Central Oregon is an extensively studied volcano that contains one of the largest geothermal heat reservoirs in the western United States. The detailed characterization of this continental volcanic system reveals it is an excellent choice for drilling a well that will reach temperatures greater than 450°C at relatively shallow depths (< 5000 m). The main purpose of the Newberry Deep Drilling Project (NDDP) is to test the feasibility of super-hot EGS where super critical fluid can be produced with a higher energy compared to conventional EGS. NDDP will be located at an idle geothermal exploration well, NWG 46-16, drilled in 2008 on the western flank of the volcano. The project has several main goals: test EGS above the critical point of water; collect samples of rocks within the brittle-ductile transition zone; investigate volcanic hazards; study geomechanics in plastic rock and test technology for drilling, well completion, and geophysical monitoring. The well NWG 46-16, now 3500 m deep and 340-374°C at bottom, will be deepened another 1000 to 1300 m to reach 500°C into the supercritical region, and potentially approaching the brittle-ductile transition or even zones of partial melt. The original well was drilled with lost circulation zones only at very shallow depth and the temperature profile indicates conductive heat flow. Compared to other super-hot geothermal projects worldwide, this well would return more materials (cuttings, core and fluids) with more predictable drilling conditions, thus providing a suite of data near and across the brittle-ductile transition in silica-rich rocks. The well will be completed with casing and cement designed and tested to withstand the abuses of thermal cycling, hydraulic and thermal stimulation, and flow of supercritical fluids. Geothermal, volcanic, geophysical, and engineering information gained will be widely applicable to other magmatically active areas throughout the Pacific Rim and beyond.

EGS, supercritical, Newberry Volcano, brittle-duct↗

DOE OSTI2015

Incorporating climate and regional setting into realistic-efficacious end states for contaminated sites - 15386

Data from former uranium milling and processing sites in the arid western United States (US) exemplify a conceptual model in which climate and geomorphology, and the associated geochemical and hydrological conditions, control the fate and transport of contaminants. In arid settings, shallow groundwater is transferred to the vadose zone and atmosphere via evaporation, transpiration and seepage. During these transfers, dissolved constituents accumulate in the vadose zone near the capillary fringe and around the roots of phreatophyte plants. In areas where the water table is shallow, minerals will also accumulate at the surface as a result of capillarity and evaporation. Two western-semiarid former milling sites, Tuba City AZ and Riverton WY, represent deep and shallow water table cases, respectively. At Tuba City, hydrological and geochemical factors limit the size of the groundwater plume and reduce the potential for contaminated water to crop at the locally significant Moenkopi Wash. At both sites, minerals that have formed in the groundwater and vadose zone in the near-field and mid-field areas will sustain elevated groundwater concentrations of anthropogenic contaminants, such as sulfate and uranium, for an extended time frame. The presence of secondary source mineral accumulations in the vadose zone in the mid-field area at Riverton is significant because episodic flooding occurs at this site. The contaminant distributions and plume dynamics observed at arid sites contrast with sites in the eastern US with stronger hydrologic driving forces and weaker evaporative processes. In both arid and non-arid settings, long term contaminant behaviors and concomitant exposure, risk and remediation time frames are controlled by regional conditions and climate and by local modifying factors. As a result, incorporating these conditions and factors into environmental management decisions provides new opportunities to develop more robust, sustainable and technically-defensible end states. (authors)

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2023

The confluence of machine learning and multiscale simulations

Multiscale modeling has a long history of use in structural biology, as computational biologists strive to overcome the time- and length-scale limits of atomistic molecular dynamics. Contemporary machine learning techniques, such as deep learning, have promoted advances in virtually every field of science and engineering and are revitalizing the traditional notions of multiscale modeling. Deep learning has found success in various approaches for distilling information from fine-scale models, such as building surrogate models and guiding the development of coarse-grained potentials. However, perhaps its most powerful use in multiscale modeling is in defining latent spaces that enable efficient exploration of conformational space. In conclusion, this confluence of machine learning and multiscale simulation with modern high-performance computing promises a new era of discovery and innovation in structural biology.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

On the Hunt for Detectable Biosignatures in Jezero Crater: What to Look for and Where

Introduction: The Perseverance rover, which is currently exploring Jezero crater on Mars, is equipped with seven instruments that allow for observation of textures, minerals, color, structure, and chemistry of rocks and sediments in order to search for signs of ancient life, understand the geologic history of the crater, and identify candidates for sample return (Farley et al. 2020). The first of these aims includes the direct detection of potential biosignatures, including textures, organic molecules, minerals, and elemental chemistries that are of biogenic origin (Mustard et al. 2013). The presence of these biosignatures will be constrained by the habitability of the local region, the preservation potential of the host rocks, and the sensitivity of the instrument suite, and their biogenicity will be investigated after return to Earth as part of the Mars Sample Return campaign. Here, we examine key targets on the three planned campaigns, potential biosignatures that may be present, and the capabilities of key rover instruments. High Potential Biosignature Sites in Jezero: To date, measurements have been made on multiple sites that both contain minerals known in terrestrial settings to preserve biosignatures and likely were habitable settings (Williford et al. 2021). Two examples include the fine-grained rocks at the base of the delta fan and the NW inner margin of the crater. Fine-grained Rocks at Base of Delta Fan. Fine-grained, clay-bearing rocks may have been deposited as muddy lake sediments that could have hosted life and preserved biosignatures settling out of the water column. The report of organic molecules by the Curiosity rover in the Sheepbed mudstone and Murray formation has highlighted this site in particular. Potential biosignatures in mudstones, especially those rich in silica (McMahon et al. 2018), microbialites and complex organics. NW Inner Margin of Crater. This unit, located along the inner margin of the crater, contains strong carbonate signatures and may have been the littoral zone of a lake (Horgan et al. 2020). The potential biosignatures here include microfossils, microbialites, biominerals, and complex organics. Detectability of Biosignatures by the Mars 2020 Instrument Suite: The Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) instrument comprises a Deep UV spectrometer, context imager, and color camera to generate spatially resolved chemical maps (Bhartia et al. 2020). It is sensitive to trace organics as well as a range of minerals and can detect native fluorescence from aromatic organics; the WATSON and ACI cameras can be used to observe morphologies such as stromatolitic laminations or filaments ranging from the tens of micron to millimeter scale. SHERLOC can detect organics that may be present in either of the high potential biosignature targets, as well as detect carbonates in the latter. However, the presence of high amounts of iron, such as in iron-rich clays, would cause attenuation of spectral response through UV absorption. The Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry (PIXL) comprises an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer and camera that can scan rock surfaces to generate elemental maps (Allwood et al. 2020). PIXL can detect chemical biosignatures such as spatial variations of elemental abundances that may have resulted from biological activity. PIXL would be particularly useful in detecting fine textures and elemental chemistries in either high potential biosignature target, but cannot directly detect minerals such as carbonate. The SuperCam instrument performs three types of spectroscopy, color imaging, and acoustic recording to remotely examine elemental composition, minerals, organics, and textures (Maurice et al. 2021). Using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy and time resolved luminescence spectroscopy, SuperCam can detect major elemental building blocks of organics (i.e., C, H, N, O, P, S) and conjugated organic structures, respectively, which may be found in either site. While in other contexts, luminescence is a useful tool for biosignature identification, luminescence generated by the 532 nm laser may obscure the Raman signal. Conclusion: The three instruments discussed can be used collaboratively to establish the presence of potential biosignatures in samples. These high-priority samples may then be returned to Earth for detailed laboratory analysis.

S. Sharma↗

DOE OSTI2014

Microbial Dark Matter: Unusual intervening sequences in 16S rRNA genes of candidate phyla from the deep subsurface

The Microbial Dark Matter project has sequenced genomes from over 200 single cells from candidate phyla, greatly expanding our knowledge of the ecology, inferred metabolism, and evolution of these widely distributed, yet poorly understood lineages. The second phase of this project aims to sequence an additional 800 single cells from known as well as potentially novel candidate phyla derived from a variety of environments. In order to identify whole genome amplified single cells, screening based on phylogenetic placement of 16S rRNA gene sequences is being conducted. Briefly, derived 16S rRNA gene sequences are aligned to a custom version of the Greengenes reference database and added to a reference tree in ARB using parsimony. In multiple samples from deep subsurface habitats but not from other habitats, a large number of sequences proved difficult to align and therefore to place in the tree. Based on comparisons to reference sequences and structural alignments using SSU-ALIGN, many of these ?difficult? sequences appear to originate from candidate phyla, and contain intervening sequences (IVSs) within the 16S rRNA genes. These IVSs are short (39 - 79 nt) and do not appear to be self-splicing or to contain open reading frames. IVSs were found in the loop regions of stem-loop structures in several different taxonomic groups. Phylogenetic placement of sequences is strongly affected by IVSs; two out of three groups investigated were classified as different phyla after their removal. Based on data from samples screened in this project, IVSs appear to be more common in microbes occurring in deep subsurface habitats, although the reasons for this remain elusive.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗