Deep Learning Parameterization of Vertical Wind Velocity Variability via Constrained Adversarial Training
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Donifan Barahona↗
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Evaluation of Model Microphysics Within Precipitation Bands of Extratropical Cyclones
Recent studies evaluating the bulk microphysical schemes (BMPs) within cloud resolving models (CRMs) have indicated large uncertainties and errors in the amount and size distributions of snow and cloud ice aloft. The snow prediction is sensitive to the snow densities, habits, and degree of riming within the BMPs. Improving these BMPs is a crucial step toward improving both weather forecasting and climate predictions. Several microphysical schemes in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model down to 1.33‐km grid spacing are evaluated using aircraft, radar, and ground in situ data from the Global Precipitation Mission Coldseason Precipitation Experiment (GCPEx) experiment, as well as a few years (15 winter storms) of surface measurements of riming, crystal habit, snow density, and radar measurements at Stony Brook, NY (SBNY on north shore of Long Island) during the 2009-2012 winter seasons. Surface microphysical measurements at SBNY were taken every 15 to 30 minutes using a stereo microscope and camera, and snow depth and snow density were also recorded. During these storms, a vertically-pointing Ku-band radar was used to observe the vertical evolution of reflectivity and Doppler vertical velocities. A Particle Size and Velocity (PARSIVEL) disdrometer was also used to measure the surface size distribution and fall speeds of snow at SBNY. For the 15 cases at SBNY, the WSM6, Morrison (MORR), Thompson (THOM2), and Stony Brook (SBU-YLIN) BMPs were validated. A non-spherical snow assumption (THOM2 and SBU-YLIN) simulated a more realistic distribution of reflectivity than spherical snow assumptions in the WSM6 and MORR schemes. The MORR, WSM6, and SBU-YLIN schemes are comparable to the observed velocity distribution in light and moderate riming periods. The THOM2 is ~0.25 meters per second too slow with its velocity distribution in these periods. In heavier riming, the vertical Doppler velocities in the WSM6, THOM2, and MORR schemes were ~0.25 meters per second too slow, while the SBU-YLIN was 0.25 to 0.5 meters per second too fast. Overall, the BMPs simulate a size distribution close to the observed for D < 4 mm in the dendritic, plates, and mixed habit periods. The model BMPs underestimate the size distribution when large aggregates were observed. For D > 6 mm in the dendrites, side planes, and mixed habit periods, the BMPs are likely not simulating enough aggregation to create a larger size distribution, although the MORR (double moment) scheme seemed to perform best. These SBNY results will be compared with some results from GCPEx for a warm frontal snow band observed at 18 February 2012.
Colle, Brian A.↗
Evaluation of Model Microphysics within Precipitation Bands of Extratropical Cyclones
Recent studies evaluating the bulk microphysical schemes (BMPs) within cloud resolving models (CRMs) have indicated large uncertainties and errors in the amount and size distributions of snow and cloud ice aloft. The snow prediction is sensitive to the snow densities, habits, and degree of riming within the BMPs. Improving these BMPs is a crucial step toward improving both weather forecasting and climate predictions. Several microphysical schemes in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model down to 1.33‐km grid spacing are evaluated using aircraft, radar, and ground in situ data from the Global Precipitation Mission Coldseason Precipitation Experiment (GCPEx) experiment, as well as a few years (15 winter storms) of surface measurements of riming, crystal habit, snow density, and radar measurements at Stony Brook, NY (SBNY on north shore of Long Island) during the 2009-2012 winter seasons. Surface microphysical measurements at SBNY were taken every 15 to 30 minutes using a stereo microscope and camera, and snow depth and snow density were also recorded. During these storms, a vertically-pointing Ku-band radar was used to observe the vertical evolution of reflectivity and Doppler vertical velocities. A Particle Size and Velocity (PARSIVEL) disdrometer was also used to measure the surface size distribution and fall speeds of snow at SBNY. For the 15 cases at SBNY, the WSM6, Morrison (MORR), Thompson (THOM2), and Stony Brook (SBU-YLIN) BMPs were validated. A non-spherical snow assumption (THOM2 and SBU-YLIN) simulated a more realistic distribution of reflectivity than spherical snow assumptions in the WSM6 and MORR schemes. The MORR, WSM6, and SBU-YLIN schemes are comparable to the observed velocity distribution in light and moderate riming periods. The THOM2 is approx 0.25 m/s too slow with its velocity distribution in these periods. In heavier riming, the vertical Doppler velocities in the WSM6, THOM2, and MORR schemes were approx 0.25 m/s too slow, while the SBU-YLIN was 0.25 to 0.5 m/s too fast. Overall, the BMPs simulate a size distribution close to the observed for D < 4 mm in the dendritic, plates, and mixed habit periods. The model BMPs underestimate the size distribution when large aggregates were observed. For D > 6 mm in the dendrites, side planes, and mixed habit periods, the BMPs are likely not simulating enough aggregation to create a larger size distribution, although the MORR (double moment) scheme seemed to perform best. These SBNY results will be compared with some results from GCPEx for a warm frontal snow band observed at 18 February 2012.
Colle, Brian A.↗
The velocity distribution caused by an airplane at the points of a vertical plane containing the span
A formula for the computation of the vertical velocity component on all sides of an airplane is deduced and discussed. The formation is of value for the interpretation of such free flight tests where two airplanes fly alongside each other to facilitate observation.
Munk, Max M↗
Landing Characteristics of a Re-entry Vehicle with a Passive Landing System for Impact Alleviation
An experimental investigation was made to determine the landing characteristics of a 1/8-scale dynamic model of a reentry vehicle using a passive landing system to alleviate the landing-impact loads. The passive landing system consisted of a flexible heat shield with a small section of aluminum honeycomb placed between the heat shield and the crew compartment at the point that would be the first to contact the landing surface. The model was landed on concrete and sand landing surfaces at parachute letdown velocities. The investigations simulated a vertical velocity of 30 ft/sec (full scale), horizontal velocities of 0, 15, 30, 40, and 50 ft/sec (full scale), and landing attitudes ranging from -30 degrees to 20 degrees. The model investigation indicated that stable landings could be made on a concrete surface at horizontal velocities up to about 30 ft/sec, but the stable landing-attitude range at these speeds was small. The aluminum honeycomb bottomed occasionally during landings on concrete. When bottoming did not occur, maximum normal and longitudinal accelerations at the center of gravity of the vehicle were approximately 50g and 30g, respectively.
Stubbs, Sandy M.↗
Large Field Photogrammetry Techniques in Aircraft and Spacecraft Impact Testing
The Landing and Impact Research Facility (LandIR) at NASA Langley Research Center is a 240 ft. high A-frame structure which is used for full-scale crash testing of aircraft and rotorcraft vehicles. Because the LandIR provides a unique capability to introduce impact velocities in the forward and vertical directions, it is also serving as the facility for landing tests on full-scale and sub-scale Orion spacecraft mass simulators. Recently, a three-dimensional photogrammetry system was acquired to assist with the gathering of vehicle flight data before, throughout and after the impact. This data provides the basis for the post-test analysis and data reduction. Experimental setups for pendulum swing tests on vehicles having both forward and vertical velocities can extend to 50 x 50 x 50 foot cubes, while weather, vehicle geometry, and other constraints make each experimental setup unique to each test. This paper will discuss the specific calibration techniques for large fields of views, camera and lens selection, data processing, as well as best practice techniques learned from using the large field of view photogrammetry on a multitude of crash and landing test scenarios unique to the LandIR.
Littell, Justin D.↗
Atmospheric Energy Spectra in Global Kilometre-Scale Models
Eleven 40-day long integrations of five different global models with horizontal resolutions of less than 9 km are compared in terms of their global energy spectra. The method of normal-mode function decomposition is used to distinguish between balanced (Rossby wave; RW) and unbalanced (inertia-gravity wave; IGW) circulation. The simulations produce the expected canonical shape of the spectra, but their spectral slopes at mesoscales, and the zonal scale at which RW and IGW spectra intersect differ significantly. The partitioning of total wave energies into RWs an IGWs is most sensitive to the turbulence closure scheme and this partitioning is what determines the spectral crossing scale in the simulations, which differs by a factor of up to two. It implies that care must be taken when using simple spatial filtering to compare gravity wave phenomena in storm-resolving simulations, even when the model horizontal resolutions are similar. In contrast to the energy partitioning between the RWs and IGWs, changes in turbulence closure schemes do not seem to strongly affect spectral slopes, which only exhibit major differences at mesoscales. Despite their minor contribution to the global (horizontal kinetic plus potential available) energy, small scales are important for driving the global mean circulation. Our results support the conclusions of previous studies that the strength of convection is a relevant factor for explaining discrepancies in the energies at small scales. The models studied here produce the major large-scale features of tropical precipitation patterns. However, particularly at large horizontal wavenumbers, the spectra of upper tropospheric vertical velocity, which is a good indicator for the strength of deep convection, differ by factors of three or more in energy. High vertical kinetic energies at small scales are mostly found in those models that do not use any convective parameterisation.
DYAMOND↗
Cloud top height variability of strong convective cells
Cloud top height variability of cloud domes above the cirrostratus anvil was investigated for two severe local storm occurrences over Texas on May 12 and 13, 1972. Twenty-three domes were monitored and the average maximum height was 1.6 km above the anvil. It was estimated that a dome would take a maximum of about 6 min to grow from the anvil level to peak altitude based on measurements over the last 2 min of the growth period when the upward vertical velocity averaged 4 m/sec. The extreme vertical growth rate was 27 m/sec for a 30-sec period. This vertical growth rate compared with a range of 11.4-19.4 m sec determined from a method of estimating vertical motions based on laboratory measurements. Average dome collapse was at the same rate as the average ascent for the first 90 sec after the maximum altitude was reached.
Shenk, W. E.↗
Thermal structure and dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere. II - Visible cloud features
Thermal structures including major white ovals, hot spot regions, barges and a belt zone pair in the Jovian atmosphere are investigated using Voyager IRIS data. Atmosphere above anticyclonic features is cold relative to the immediate surroundings in the upper troposphere and tropopause region, which is consistent with upwelling and divergence in that part of the atmosphere. Localized cyclonic features are warm relative to their surroundings which implies subsidence with accompanying convergence. Thermal wind shear indicates a decay of the vorticity with height in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, and vertical velocities imply an upper limit of vertical mixing times near the tropopause of about 20 years. Various possible models are also examined, including radiative heating, vertical wave propagation, and thermally indirect merdional cells.
Conrath, B. J.↗
Structure of atmospheric turbulence in the friction layer below 500 meters
Measurements of wind direction and speed, vertical velocity, and temperature were made from several levels of the 444 m tower near Oklahoma City. Turbulence quantities were calculated from the covariances between observed variables over periods ranging from 5 min to 1 hr. It was found that in some cases parameters such as mean wind speed, shearing stress, and vertical heat flux could be expressed by simple equations for periods of 15 min to 1 hr. Changes in these quantities with time are related to changes in vertical motion and stability. Power spectra were calculated for sequential 15 min, 30 min, and 1 hr periods. The effects of stability, wind speed, and surface roughness on the spectra of longitudinal and lateral velocity were examined, along with the effect of height on the spectrum of vertical velocity. This region was shown to be composed of a lower region in which mechanical turbulence dominates and an upper region dominated by convective turbulence.
Maas, S. J.↗
Characteristics of Deep Tropical and Subtropical Convection from Nadir-Viewing High-Altitude Airborne Doppler Radar
This paper presents observations of deep convection characteristics in the tropics and subtropics that have been classified into four categories: tropical cyclone, oceanic, land, and sea breeze. Vertical velocities in the convection were derived from Doppler radar measurements collected during several NASA field experiments from the nadir-viewing high-altitude ER-2 Doppler radar (EDOP). Emphasis is placed on the vertical structure of the convection from the surface to cloud top (sometimes reaching 18-km altitude). This unique look at convection is not possible from other approaches such as ground-based or lower-altitude airborne scanning radars. The vertical motions from the radar measurements are derived using new relationships between radar reflectivity and hydrometeor fall speed. Various convective properties, such as the peak updraft and downdraft velocities and their corresponding altitude, heights of reflectivity levels, and widths of reflectivity cores, are estimated. The most significant findings are the following: 1) strong updrafts that mostly exceed 15 m/s, with a few exceeding 30 m/s, are found in all the deep convection cases, whether over land or ocean; 2) peak updrafts were almost always above the 10-km level and, in the case of tropical cyclones, were closer to the 12-km level; and 3) land-based and sea-breeze convection had higher reflectivities and wider convective cores than oceanic and tropical cyclone convection. In addition, the high-resolution EDOP data were used to examine the connection between reflectivity and vertical velocity, for which only weak linear relationships were found. The results are discussed in terms of dynamical and microphysical implications for numerical models and future remote sensors.
Heymsfield, Gerald M.↗
Helicopter optimal descent and landing after power loss
An optimal control solution is obtained for the descent and landing of a helicopter after the loss of power in level flight. The model considers the helicopter vertical velocity, horizontal velocity, and rotor speed; and it includes representations of ground effect, rotor inflow time lag, pilot reaction time, rotor stall, and the induced velocity curve in the vortex ring state. The control (rotor thrust magnitude and direction) required to minimize the vertical and horizontal velocity at contact with the ground is obtained using nonlinear optimal control theory. It is found that the optimal descent after power loss in hover is a purely vertical flight path. Good correlation, even quantitatively, is found between the calculations and (non-optimal) flight test results.
Johnson, W.↗
On the origin of the streak spacing in turbulent shear flows
It is shown that the ideas of selective amplification and direct resonance, based on linear theory, can not provide an explanation for the well-defined streak spacing of about 100 wall units (referred to as 100(+) hereafter) in wall-bounded turbulent shear flows. In addition, for the direct resonance theory, the streaks are created by the non-linear self-interaction of the vertical velocity rather than of the directly forced vertical vorticity. In view of the failure of these approaches, it is then proposed that the selection mechanism must be inherently non-linear and correspond to a self-sustaining mechanism. The 100(+) value should thus be considered as a critical Reynolds number for that mechanism. Indeed, in the case of Poiseuille flow, this 100(+) criterion for transition to turbulence corresponds to the usually quoted value of 1000 based on the half-width and the centerline velocity. In Couette flow, it corresponds to a critical Reynolds number of about 400 based on the half width and half velocity difference.
Waleffe, Fabian A.↗
Great Bend tornadoes of August 30, 1974
Photogrammetric analyses of movies and still pictures taken of the Great Bend, Kansas Tornado series have been used to develop design specifications for nuclear power plants and facilities. A maximum tangential velocity of 57 m/sec and a maximum vertical velocity of 27 m/sec are determined for one suction vortex having a translational velocity of 32 m/sec. Three suction vortices with radii in the 20 to 30 m range are noted in the flow field of one tornado; these suction vortices apparently form a local convergence of inflow air inside the outer portion of the tornado core.
Umenhofer, T. A.↗
Investigation of a laser Doppler velocimeter system to measure the flow field of a large scale V/STOL aircraft in ground effect
An experimental research program for measuring the flow field around a 70 percent scale V/STOL aircraft model in ground effect is described. The velocity measurements were conducted with a ground-based laser Doppler velocimeter at an outdoor test pad. The remote sensing instrumentation, experimental tests, and results of the velocity surveys are discussed. The distribution of vertical velocity in the fan jet and fountain, the radial velocity in the wall jet and the horizontal velocity along the aircraft underside are presented for different engine rpms and aircraft heights above ground. The study shows that it is feasible to use a mobile laser Doppler velocimeter to measure the flow field generated by a large scale V/STOL aircraft operating in ground effect.
Zalay, A. D.↗
Tropospheric gravity waves observed by three closely spaced ST radars
Clear-air radar experiments were carried out on the southern coast of France during the (ALPEX) Alpine experiment program vertically directed stratosphere-troposphere-radars were set up with spacings of about 5 to 6 km. The temporal and spectral characteristics of the vertical velocity fluctuations were examined. The horizontal and vertical properties of gravity waves in the lower atmosphere were analyzed. The techniques used and the first results from this wave study are described.
Carter, D. A.↗
On the origin of streaks in turbulent shear flows
The paper substantiates the notion that selective amplification and direct resonance, based on linear theory, does not provide a selection mechanism for the well-defined streak spacing of about 100 wall units observed in wall-bounded turbulent shear flows. For the direct resonance theory, it is shown that the streaks are created by the nonlinear self-interaction of the vertical velocity rather than that of the directly forced vertical vorticity. It is proposed that the selection mechanism must be inherently nonlinear and correspond to a self-sustaining process. For the case of plane Poiseuille flow the 100-wall-unit criterion corresponds to a critical Reynolds number of 1250, based on the centerline velocity and the channel half-width, which is close to the usually quoted value of about 1000. In plane Couette flow, it corresponds to a critical Reynolds number of 625, based on the half-velocity difference and the half-width.
Waleffe, Fabian↗
Net diffusivity in ocean general circulation models with nonuniform grids
The numerical vertical diffusivity K(num), embedded in a numerical ocean general circulation model with nonuniform vertical grid, is estimated. It is shown that in a downwelling region, K(num) is negative for a grid with grid size increasing with depth. When the grid size increment, or the downward vertical velocity, is large, K(num) may exceed the vertical diffusivity specified and may result in a negative effective vertical diffusivity. Therefore care needs to be taken to specify the vertical diffusivity in a numerical model with nonuniform grid, and a lower bound is generally imposed in order to avoid an unphysical negative value. Some possible effects of the negative effective diffusivity are discussed.
Yin, F. L.↗