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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 163 records · Page 9
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Evaluation of idealized large-eddy simulations performed with the Weather Research and Forecasting model using turbulence measurements from a 250 m meteorological mast

Abstract. We investigate the ability of the Weather Research and Forecasting model to perform large-eddy simulation of canonical flows. This is achieved through comparison of the simulation outputs with measurements from sonic anemometers on a 250 m meteorological mast located at Østerild, in northern Denmark. Østerild is on a flat and rough area, and for the predominant wind directions, the atmospheric flow can be considered to be close to homogeneous. The idealized simulated flows aim at representing atmospheric boundary layer turbulence under unstable, neutral, and stable stability conditions at the surface, which are statistically significant conditions observed at Østerild. We found that the resolved fields from the simulations appear to have the characteristics of the three stability regimes. Vertical profiles of observed mean wind speeds and direction are well reproduced by the simulations, with the largest differences under near-neutral conditions, where the effect of the subgrid-scale model is evident on the vertical wind shear close to the surface. Vertical profiles of observed eddy fluxes are also well reproduced by the simulations, with the largest differences for the three velocity component variances under stable stability conditions, although nearly always within the observed variability. With regards to turbulent kinetic energy, we find good agreement between observations and simulations at all vertical levels. Simulated and observed velocity spectra match very well and show very similar behavior with height and with atmospheric stability within the low-frequency interval; at the effective resolution, the simulated spectra show the typical drop-off of finite differences. Our findings demonstrate that these idealized simulations reproduce the characteristics of atmospheric stability regimes often observed at a high turbulent and flat site within a direction sector, where the air flows over nearly homogeneous land.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Exceptional Mineral Scaling Resistance from the Surface Gas Layer: Impacts of Surface Wetting Properties and the Gas Layer Charging Mechanism

Mineral scaling is a phenomenon that occurs on submerged surfaces in contact with saline solutions. In membrane desalination, heat exchangers, and marine structures, mineral scaling reduces process efficiency and eventually leads to process failure. Therefore, achieving long-term scaling resistance is beneficial to enhancing process performance and reducing operating and maintenance costs. While evidence shows that superhydrophobic surfaces may reduce mineral scaling kinetics, prolonged scaling resistance is limited due to the finite stability of the entrained gas layer present in a Cassie–Baxter wetting state. Additionally, superhydrophobic surfaces are not always feasible for all applications, but strategies for long-term scaling resistance with smooth or even hydrophilic surfaces are often overlooked. In this study, we elucidate the role of interfacial nanobubbles on the scaling kinetics of submerged surfaces of varied wetting properties, including those that do not entrain a gas layer. We show that both solution conditions and surface wetting properties that promote interfacial bubble formation enhances scaling resistance. In the absence of interfacial bubbles, scaling kinetics decrease as surface energy decreases, while the presence of bulk nanobubbles enhances the scaling resistance of the surface with any wetting property. The findings in this study allude to scaling mitigation strategies that are enabled by solution and surface properties that promote the formation and stability of interfacial gas layers and provide insights to surface and process design for greater scaling resistance.

calcite↗
DOE OSTI2025

Structure Sensitivity and Catalyst Restructuring for CO2 Electro-reduction on Copper

Abstract Cu is the most promising metal catalyst for CO 2 electroreduction (CO 2 RR) to multi-carbon products, yet the structure sensitivity of the reaction and the stability versus restructuring of the catalyst surface under reaction conditions remain controversial. Here, atomic scale simulations of surface energies and reaction pathway kinetics supported by experimental evidence unveil that CO 2 RR does not take place on perfect planar Cu(111) and Cu(100) surfaces but rather on steps or kinks. These planar surfaces tend to restructure in reaction conditions to the active stepped surfaces, with the strong binding of CO on defective sites acting as a thermodynamic driving force. Notably, we identify that the square motifs adjacent to defects, not the defects themselves, as the active sites for CO 2 RR via synergistic effect. We evaluate these mechanisms against experiments of CO 2 RR on ultra-high vacuum-prepared ultraclean Cu surfaces, uncovering the crucial role of step-edge orientation in steering selectivity. Overall, our study refines the structural sensitivity of CO 2 RR on Cu at the atomic level, highlights the self-activation mechanism and elucidates the origin of in situ restructuring of Cu surfaces during the reaction.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
DOE OSTI2022

Real-time laser ultrasonic monitoring of laser-induced thermal processes

Abstract Intra- and inter-layer integrity of components fabricated with advanced manufacturing techniques, such as laser powder bed fusion, is dependent upon rapid heating, melting, and solidification processes. There is a need for new techniques to provide in situ feedback of these processes. Here a laser-based ultrasonic technique to probe thermal effects induced by a high-power continuous wave laser in titanium samples is described. Numerical simulations were performed to show that, for a spatially uniform heating beam, laser-induced surface acoustic waves are strongly influenced by surface heating conditions, are dispersive in the case of rapid heating, and that an abrupt velocity reduction happens upon the onset of surface melting. Furthermore, laser-based ultrasound experimental results which monitor the transient change of surface wave travel time associated with high power laser surface heating are provided. A pulsed laser is used to generate high frequency surface acoustic waves that propagate through the laser-heated region and are detected using a photorefractive crystal-based interferometer. Qualitative agreement is observed between theory and experiment with both showing a rapid reduction in the surface wave velocity at the onset of illumination and further decrease in surface wave velocity associated with melting. It is demonstrated that changes in the surface wave velocity can be used to track local heating and detect the onset of surface melting in real time.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Corrosion of Zinc Cold Spray Coatings in a Wet Sweet and Sour Gas Environment

Internal corrosion is a problem for steel pipelines transporting natural gas or CO 2 containing water and partial pressures of H 2 S higher than 0.3 kPa (0.05 psi). This work aims to mitigate internal corrosion in steel pipelines transporting natural gas containing H 2 S using cold spray coatings. Two types of the cold spray binary metallic coatings (zinc chromium [ZnCr]. zinc niobium [ZnNb]) were studied using electrochemical techniques: potentiodynamic polarization, linear polarization resistance, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The corrosion resistance of cold spray coatings (ZnCr, ZnNb) was evaluated in an environment containing 4 bar CO 2 pressure, simulating the partial pressures found in gas transmission lines over a solution of 3.5 wt% NaCl heated to 40°C. A concentration of 0.003 M Na 2 S 2 O 3 ·5H 2 O, corresponding to H 2 S partial pressures around 0.079 bar (1.146 psi), was used to simulate sour conditions. Postcorrosion surface characterization was performed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscope (EDS) and x-ray diffraction analysis. The data showed that the presence of 0.003 M Na 2 S 2 O 3 ·5H 2 O shifted the corrosion potential to more anodic values and decreased the corrosion current density. Both coatings showed similar behavior after 1 h of exposure in the CO 2 /H 2 S environment, indicating that similar electrochemical reactions were occurring on ZnNb and ZnCr. SEM images and EDS surface analyses for specimens showed a significant change in the surface chemical composition of carbon steel coated with ZnNb and ZnCr after 24 h of immersion. In the presence of thiosulfate (under sour conditions), the formation of corrosion product layers (ZnCO 3 and ZnS) on top of ZnNb and ZnCr coatings increased their corrosion resistance, which helped to reduce their corrosion by a factor of 2. Under a sweet environment, the corrosion rates for steel coated with cold spray coatings after 14 d of exposure are lower than that for galvanized steel by a factor of 5 due to the ZnCO 3 layer formed on top of the coatings. The ZnCO 3 layer formed on the steel surface acts as a physical barrier against corrosion by blocking the diffusion of corrosive species to the surface. No localized attack was observed. ZnCr Cold spray coating with defect showed promising corrosion protection against CO 2 corrosion (sweet corrosion) after 14 d of exposure to a CO 2 environment. Here, the scratch on the coating simulated damage created in service, and it was deep enough to expose the substrate material (steel). The formation of zinc oxide (ZnO) and zinc carbonate (ZnCO 3 ) on the scratch confirmed the cathodic protection of the steel by ZnCr and ZnNb coatings.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

The role of environmental conditions on the carbonation of an alkali-activated cementitious waste form

Cast Stone is a cementitious waste form being considered for the solidification of low activity waste at the DOE Hanford Site. Under near-surface disposal conditions in an arid environment, Cast Stone is subject to drying and carbonation which may impact retention of waste constituents. Here this study investigates the effects of environmental CO 2 concentration and relative humidity (RH) on the carbonation of Cast Stone. The rate of carbonation front ingress and the extent of carbonation reaction were characterized for samples aged up to 48 weeks at three RH levels and two CO 2 concentrations. While the 68% RH environment allowed the greatest reaction extent, the 15% RH environment yielded the deepest carbonation front ingress. At 68% RH, there was a linear relationship between the ingress rate and CO 2 concentration. Carbonation reactions increased the drying rate of Cast Stone. Redistribution of sodium toward the wetting front was observed under drying and carbonation conditions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Surface processing and discharge-conditioning of high voltage electrodes for the Ra EDM experiment

The Ra EDM experiment uses a pair of high voltage electrodes to search for the atomic electric dipole moment of 225 Ra. We use identical, plane–parallel electrodes with a primary high gradient surface of 200 mm 2 to generate reversible DC electric fields. Our statistical sensitivity is linearly proportional to the electric field strength in the electrode gap. We adapted surface decontamination and processing techniques from accelerator physics literature to chemical polish and clean a suite of newly fabricated large-grain niobium and grade-2 titanium electrodes. Three pairs of niobium electrodes and one pair of titanium electrodes were discharge-conditioned with a custom high voltage test station at electric field strengths as high as +52.5 kV/mm and –51.5 kV/mm over electrode gap sizes ranging from 0.4 mm to 2.5 mm. One pair of large-grain niobium electrodes was discharge-conditioned and validated to operate at ±20 kV/mm with steady-state leakage current ≤ 25 pA (1σ) and a polarity-averaged 98 ± 19 discharges per hour. These electrodes were installed in the Ra EDM experimental apparatus, replacing a copper electrode pair, and were revalidated to ±20 kV/mm. Here, the niobium electrodes perform at an electric field strength 3.1 times larger than the legacy copper electrodes and are ultimately limited by the maximum output of our 30 kV bipolar power supply.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2023

Corrosion rates measured under potentiostatic conditions to represent performance of a cermet nuclear waste form

Electrochemical tests were conducted to assess the corrosion performance of a developmental multiphase cermet nuclear waste form in different conditions. Corrosion currents were monitored as the surface equilibrated in an acidic brine solution during potentiostatic tests at different imposed potentials. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to quantify differences in the electrical properties of surfaces stabilised at different potentials. The passivating oxides that will stabilise the surface under disposal conditions are formed and maintained during testing. The measured corrosion currents were two orders of magnitude lower for passivated surfaces than for polished surfaces over a wide range of redox conditions. The electrochemical results were correlated with microscopic analyses of the corroded surfaces and physical models of the surface passivation and degradation processes are proposed. The measured corrosion rates are suitable for the long-term performance modeling of cermet nuclear waste forms.

Gattu, V. K.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Measurement of isosteric heat of gas adsorption and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area using a quartz crystal microbalance

The study of gas adsorption on a solid surface evaluates the affinity between sorbate gas and sorbent substrate and factors that contribute to this. This report presents a test platform for adsorption experiments of various gases on various solid surfaces. Controlled environmental conditions enable investigations in materials surface science and increase the consistency among adsorption data. The system utilizes a quartz crystal microbalance to perform gravimetric analysis of deposition and adsorption, enabling investigation of the interaction of gaseous molecules with solid surfaces. In this study, a quartz crystal microbalance as gas adsorption detector was integrated with an environmental chamber to create a versatile tool for gas adsorption experiments on thin films. Experimental operation of this apparatus was demonstrated via acquisition of the adsorption isotherms of cyclohexane vapor on a gold surface at 55 and 70 °C. The result indicated International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Type II adsorption. Consequentially, application of the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller model to the isotherm data subject to predefined criteria for linear region selection yielded a surface area of the sorbent of 0.53 cm2 at 55 °C. From the monolayer region of the isotherms, the isosteric heat of adsorption of the cyclohexane vapor on gold was calculated to be 37 kJ mol-1.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Medium-Scale Methanol Pool Fire Model Validation

In this work, medium scale (30 cm diameter) methanol pool fires were simulated using the latest fire modeling suite implemented in Sierra/Fuego, a low Mach number multiphysics reacting flow code. The sensitivity of model outputs to various model parameters was studied with the objective of providing model validation. This work also assesses model performance relative to other recently published large eddy simulations (LES) of the same validation case. Two pool surface boundary conditions were simulated. The first was a prescribed fuel mass flux and the second used an algorithm to predict mass flux based on a mass and energy balance at the fuel surface. Gray gas radiation model parameters (absorption coefficients and gas radiation sources) were varied to assess radiant heat losses to the surroundings and pool surface. The radiation model was calibrated by comparing the simulated radiant fraction of the plume to experimental data. The effects of mesh resolution were also quantified starting with a grid resolution representative of engineering type fire calculations and then uniformly refining that mesh in the plume region. Simulation data were compared to experimental data collected at the University of Waterloo and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Validation data included plume temperature, radial and axial velocities, velocity temperature turbulent correlations, velocity velocity turbulent correlations, radiant and convective heat fluxes to the pool surface, and plume radiant fraction. Additional analyses were performed in the pool boundary layer to assess simulated flame anchoring and the effect on convective heat fluxes. This work assesses the capability of the latest Fuego physics and chemistry model suite and provides additional insight into pool fire modeling for nonluminous, non-sooting flames.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Global decline in ocean memory over the 21st century

Ocean memory, the persistence of ocean conditions, is a major source of predictability in the climate system beyond weather time scales. We show that ocean memory, as measured by the year-to-year persistence of sea surface temperature anomalies, is projected to steadily decline in the coming decades over much of the globe. This global decline in ocean memory is predominantly driven by shoaling of the upper-ocean mixed layer depth in response to global surface warming, while thermodynamic and dynamic feedbacks can contribute substantially regionally. As the mixed layer depth shoals, stochastic forcing becomes more effective in driving sea surface temperature anomalies, increasing high-frequency noise at the expense of persistent signals. Reduced ocean memory results in shorter lead times of skillful persistence-based predictions of sea surface thermal conditions, which may present previously unknown challenges for predicting climate extremes and managing marine biological resources under climate change.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Surface Chemistry of Liquid Bismuth under Oxygen and Water Vapor Studied by Ambient Pressure X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

Bismuth (Bi) has a fairly low melting point of 544 K making it practical as a liquid metal medium in a number of applications. Under ambient atmospheric conditions the surface of solid Bi oxidizes. While the solid Bi interface has been fairly well characterized with surface science studies upon exposure to oxygen, to date little is known about the molecular level reactivity of the liquid interface. Here, using ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy the liquid-gas interfacial chemistry of Bi was examined upon exposure to oxygen gas and water vapor at 550 K up to a maximum pressure of 0.5 Torr. Water vapor remained unreactive towards the liquid interface over the entire pressure range. Oxygen remined unreactive up to 10 –4 Torr, whereas above this pressure oxidation was observed forming Bi 2 O 3 . The oxidation exposure onset was > 5 x 10 5 Langmuirs, significantly higher than what is required for solid Bi interfaces.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

High-Temperature Nucleation of GaP on V-Grooved Si

The use of nanopatterned {111}-faceted v-grooves has recently shown promise for growing high-quality III–V material on Si. Here, we study the effect of reactor conditions and surface pretreatments on the nucleation of GaP on v-grooved Si in a high-temperature regime, which offers the promise of a defect-free GaP/Si interface favorable for Si passivation and dislocation glide in the GaP. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy was used to understand the Si surface chemistry prior to nucleation, and transmission electron microscopy was used to probe material quality of the nuclei. Temperature and V/III ratio were found to control the facet selectivity of nucleation. We demonstrate a condition of high temperature and high V–III ratio that leads to uniform nucleation at the bottom of the trenches, with initial material free of nucleation-related interfacial defects. This optimized condition was then shown to coalesce into a thin film after additional growth.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhancing carbon dioxide capture under humid conditions by optimizing the pore surface structure

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) exhibit significant potential for mitigating carbon emissions due to their high porosity and tunability. Despite numerous reports on CO 2 capture by MOF sorbents, a common challenge is their poor selectivity for CO 2 over water. Moreover, in-depth studies are much needed to elucidate the relationships among the pore surface structure, hydrophobicity, and CO 2 uptake capacity/selectivity. In this work, we investigate the factors influencing CO 2 adsorption capacity and selectivity under humidity in a series of isoreticular pillar-layer structures, Ni 2 (L) 2 (dabco) (L = bdc, ndc, adc). Our study shows that increasing ligand conjugation not only results in increased hydrophobicity, decreased pore size and BET surface area, but also leads to the change of primary binding sites of water molecules and higher binding energy of CO 2 , all of which contribute to largely increased CO 2 uptake capacity under humid conditions. Additionally, increasing ligand conjugation and consequently hydrophobicity slow down and reduce competitive water adsorption drastically. Notably, the MOF made of ligand with the highest conjugation, Ni 2 (adc) 2 (dabco), exhibits significantly enhanced CO 2 adsorption in N 2 /CO 2 binary mixtures under relatively high humidity (50% RH), with an increase of ~31% and ~36% for the composition of 15/85 and 50/50, respectively, compared to dry conditions. An experimental FTIR study and DFT theoretical calculations confirm that H 2 O occupies different primary binding site in Ni 2 (bdc) 2 (dabco) and Ni 2 (adc) 2 (dabco), and under humid conditions a higher binding energy of CO 2 is achieved with preferential H 2 O/CO 2 co-adsorption in Ni 2 (adc) 2 (dabco), potentially creating additional adsorption sites for CO 2 .

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Analysis of convection heat transfer on multiscale rough superhydrophobic and liquid infused surfaces

Multiscale rough superhydrophobic or slippery liquid infused porous surfaces have gained much interest in recent years for their improved transport phenomena properties. While there have been several studies on drag reduction and condensation on non-wetting surfaces, convection heat transfer that is important in many thermal and thermochemical applications has not been addressed systematically. Here, this article utilizes a fractal description of rough surface topographies to develop analytical models for the Nusselt number and the thermal hydraulic factor for fluid flow and heat transfer inside a cylinder with non-wetting surfaces. For air-infused superhydrophobic surfaces, the model considers the dynamic stability of the air/fluid interface in the asperities. Using the analytical formulations and the stability criteria, systematic studies are presented on the effects of the fractal surface parameters, cylinder radius and Reynolds number on the convective heat transfer characteristics, from which surface texture design maps are developed for maximizing the convection heat transfer. It is shown that multiscale non-wetting surfaces are most effective in the range of lower Reynolds number and small cylinder radius for achieving the best convective heat transfer and thermal hydraulic performance. Applying the models to actual non-wetting surface topographies fabricated using electrodeposition and chemical etching, it is shown that contrary to prevailing notion, superhydrophobicity, characterized by the highest contact angles, does not always lead to the maximum convective heat transfer performance, and that under certain fluid flow conditions, hydrophobic surfaces may offer a greater thermal performance.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

The gravity extension for MCNP 6.2

Standard MCNP particle tracking takes place along straight-line trajectories from interaction point to interaction point. There is a feature within MCNP that is planned for deprecation that provides surface boundary conditions for approximating gravity for planetary cases, but this feature is not applicable to a cold neutron beam. A new extension has been developed to track particles along parabolic trajectories with a constant acceleration. MCNP contains 1st and 2nd-order surfaces as well as a special case of 4th-order surfaces for simple tori, and the intersection of parabolic trajectories with these surfaces becomes 2nd, 4th, and 8th-order equations in time, respectively. Solving these equations utilizes a fast algorithm for finding the roots of polynomials. Finally, the theory, MCNP input card, and examples of using this new feature will be discussed.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Effect of the Chemical States of Copper on Methanol Decomposition and Oxidation

Here, the decomposition and oxidation reactions of CH 3 OH over metallic Cu(100) and Cu 2 O-covered Cu(100) surfaces are studied using a combination of in-situ ambient-pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy, and density functional theory calculations. We identify the sequential chemical transformation pathways from bond cleavage to the formation of intermediates and final products under operational conditions. Accumulative surface adsorption of CH 3 O species on metallic Cu(100) impedes the decomposition of CH 3 OH. Co-dosing on metallic Cu(100) with low pressures of 1·10 -4 Torr CH 3 OH + 1·10 -4 Torr O 2 results in partial oxidation of CH 3 OH, where the chemisorbed O ads reduces surface sites available for CH 3 O adsorption, decreasing the surface activity for CH 3 OH decomposition. In contrast, the Cu 2 O overlayer formed under the elevated pressures of 0.33 Torr CH 3 OH + 0.66 Torr O 2 promotes the total oxidation of CH 3 OH into the final products of CO 2 and H 2 O, arising from the active reaction 2 between lattice O within Cu 2 O and intermediates of CH 3 O, CH 2 O, HCOO, and CO. Despite the more favorable O-H bond scission, C-O bond scission also occurs to result in surface accumulation of CH x on metallic Cu(100), blocking active sites for decomposition reactions of CH 3 OH and CH 3 O. By comparison, the CH x species on the Cu 2 O-covered Cu(100) undergo oxidation into CO 2 and H 2 O with lattice O in the Cu 2 O overlayer, thereby freeing active sites for the total oxidation of CH 3 OH. These results highlight the distinct roles of metallic Cu and Cu 2 O in the pathways of CH 3 OH decomposition and oxidation reactions, offering practical insights for the design of Cu-based catalysts with tailored reactivity and selectivity.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Extended use of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic - Thermal conditioning and spray-on surface disinfection

The current COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in globally constrained supplies for face masks and personal protective equipment (PPE). Production capacity is limited in many countries and the future course of the pandemic will likely continue with shortages for high quality masks and PPE in the foreseeable future. Therefore, expectations are that mask reuse, extended wear and similar approaches will enhance the availability of personal protective measures. Repeated thermal disinfection could be an important option and likely easier implemented in some situations, at least on the small scale, than UV illumination, irradiation or hydrogen peroxide vapor exposure. In this paper, an overview on thermal responses and ongoing filtration performance of multiple face mask types is provided. Most masks have adequate material properties to survive a few cycles (i.e. 30 min disinfection steps) of thermal exposure in the 75°C regime. Some are more easily affected, as seen by the fusing of plastic liner or warping, given that preferred conditioning temperatures are near the softening point for some of the plastics and fibers used in these masks. Hence adequate temperature control is equally important. As guidance, disinfectants sprayed via dilute solutions maintain a surface presence over extended time at 25 and 37°C. Some spray-on alcohol-based solutions containing disinfectants were gently applied to the top surface of masks. Neither moderate thermal aging (less than 24 h at 80 and 95°C) nor gentle application of surface disinfectant sprays resulted in measurable loss of mask filter performance. Subject to bio-medical concurrence (additional checks for virus kill efficiency) and the use of low risk non-toxic disinfectants, such strategies, either individually or combined, by offering additional anti-viral properties or short term refreshing, may complement reuse options of professional masks or the now ubiquitous custom-made face masks with their often unknown filtration effectiveness.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗