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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 163 records · Page 9
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2017

Filter Efficiency and Pressure Testing of Returned ISS Bacterial Filter Elements (BFEs)

The air quality control equipment aboard the International Space Station (ISS) and future deep space exploration vehicles provide the vital function of maintaining a clean cabin environment for the crew and the hardware. This becomes a serious challenge in pressurized space compartments since no outside air ventilation is possible, and a larger particulate load is imposed on the filtration system due to lack of sedimentation. The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support (ECLS) system architecture in the U.S. Segment uses a distributed particulate filtration approach consisting of traditional High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters deployed at multiple locations in each U.S. Seg-ment module; these filters are referred to as Bacterial Filter Elements, or BFEs. In our previous work, we presented results of efficiency and pressure drop measurements for a sample set of two returned BFEs with a service life of 2.5 years. In this follow-on work, we present similar efficiency, pressure drop, and leak tests results for a larger sample set of six returned BFEs. The results of this work can aid the ISS Program in managing BFE logistics inventory through the stations planned lifetime as well as provide insight for managing filter element logistics for future exploration missions. These results also can provide meaningful guidance for particulate filter designs under consideration for future deep space exploration missions.

ISS Air Quality↗
NASA NTRS2017

International Space Station (ISS) Bacterial Filter Elements (BFEs): Filter Efficiency and Pressure Drop Testing of Returned Units

The air quality control equipment aboard the International Space Station (ISS) and future deep space exploration vehicles provide the vital function of maintaining a clean cabin environment for the crew and the hardware. This becomes a serious challenge in pressurized space compartments since no outside air ventilation is possible, and a larger particulate load is imposed on the filtration system due to lack of sedimentation. The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support (ECLS) system architecture in the U.S. Segment uses a distributed particulate filtration approach consisting of traditional High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters deployed at multiple locations in each U.S. Seg-ment module; these filters are referred to as Bacterial Filter Elements, or BFEs. In our previous work, we presented results of efficiency and pressure drop measurements for a sample set of two returned BFEs with a service life of 2.5 years. In this follow-on work, we present similar efficiency, pressure drop, and leak tests results for a larger sample set of six returned BFEs. The results of this work can aid the ISS Program in managing BFE logistics inventory through the stations planned lifetime as well as provide insight for managing filter element logistics for future exploration missions. These results also can provide meaningful guidance for particulate filter designs under consideration for future deep space exploration missions.

ISS Air Quality↗
NASA NTRS2021

Effect of volcanic emissions on clouds during the 2008 and 2018 Kilauea degassing events

Volcanic eruptions in otherwise clean environments are “natural experiments” wherein the effects of aerosol emissions on clouds and climate can be partitioned from meteorological variability and anthropogenic activities. In this work, we combined satellite retrievals, reanalysis products, and atmospheric modeling to analyze the mechanisms of aerosol–cloud interactions during two degassing events at the Kilauea volcano in 2008 and 2018. The eruptive nature of the 2008 and 2018 degassing events was distinct from long-term volcanic activity for Kilauea. Although previous studies assessed the modulation of cloud properties from the 2008 event, this is the first time such an analysis has been reported for the 2018 event and that multiple degassing events have been analyzed and compared at this location. Both events resulted in significant changes in cloud effective radius and cloud droplet number concentration that were decoupled from local meteorology and in line with an enhanced cloud albedo. However, it is likely that the effects of volcanic emissions on liquid water path and cloud fraction were largely offset by meteorological variability. Comparison of cloud anomalies between the two events suggested a threshold response of aerosol–cloud interactions to overcome meteorological effects, largely controlled by aerosol loading. In both events, the ingestion of aerosols within convective parcels enhanced the detrainment of condensate in the upper troposphere, resulting in deeper clouds than observed under pristine conditions. Accounting for ice nucleation on ash particles led to enhanced ice crystal concentrations at cirrus levels and a slight decrease in ice water content, improving the correlation of the model results with the satellite retrievals. Overall, aerosol loading, plume characteristics, and meteorology contributed to changes in cloud properties during the Kilauea degassing events.

Katherine H. Breen↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Molecular Accumulation during JWST’s Optical Telescope Cryogenic Thermal Vacuum Testing

Maintaining molecular cleanliness during the JWST’s Optical Telescope/Instrument Module (OTIS) Cryogenic Thermal Vacuum (TV) test campaign was critical to the success of its optical mission on orbit. In the thermal vacuum tests leading up to the final cryogenic test to validate the OTIS flight hardware, NASA Johnson Space Center’s (JSC’s) TV Chamber A was fully characterized for molecular contamination. It was found to contain common volatile condensable materials (VCM), including hydrocarbons, plasticizers, and silicones, all of which absorb in JWST’s infrared wavelength region. Due to the risks involved, cleaning molecular contamination from the OTIS mirrors was not an option and heating the Primary Mirror (PM) segments would have also been a risky and expensive endeavor. As a result, a monitoring process was developed and implemented during four different Pathfinder or risk reduction tests that were scheduled to occur prior to the flight hardware test. The goal was to quantify and assess the risk of molecular contamination depositing on the PM resulting from relatively warm chamber shrouds “leading” colder PM mirrors during warmup, by a margin of 10-50 Kelvin (K). This was accomplished using Cryogenic Quartz Crystal Microbalances (CQCMs), held at temperatures slightly cooler than the segments to signal the onset of contamination events. Per the JWST Contamination Control Plan (CCP)1, the total Primary Mirror molecular allocation requirement was 50 angstroms. In all tests, the results showed an average accumulated molecular contamination of <10 angstroms.

optics↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Molecular Accumulation during JWST’s Optical Telescope Cryogenic Thermal Vacuum Testing

Maintaining molecular cleanliness during the JWST’s Optical Telescope/Instrument Module (OTIS) Cryogenic Thermal Vacuum (TV) test campaign was critical to the success of its optical mission on orbit. In the thermal vacuum tests leading up to the final cryogenic test to validate the OTIS flight hardware, NASA Johnson Space Center’s (JSC’s) TV Chamber A was fully characterized for molecular contamination. It was found to contain common volatile condensable materials (VCM), including hydrocarbons, plasticizers, and silicones, all of which absorb in JWST’s infrared wavelength region. Due to the risks involved, cleaning molecular contamination from the OTIS mirrors was not an option and heating the Primary Mirror (PM) segments would have also been a risky and expensive endeavor. As a result, a monitoring process was developed and implemented during four different Pathfinder or risk reduction tests that were scheduled to occur prior to the flight hardware test. The goal was to quantify and assess the risk of molecular contamination depositing on the PM resulting from relatively warm chamber shrouds “leading” colder PM mirrors during warmup, by a margin of 10-50 Kelvin (K). This was accomplished using Cryogenic Quartz Crystal Microbalances (CQCMs), held at temperatures slightly cooler than the segments to signal the onset of contamination events. Per the JWST Contamination Control Plan (CCP)1, the total Primary Mirror molecular allocation requirement was 50 angstroms. In all tests, the results showed an average accumulated molecular contamination of <10 angstroms.

molecular, contamination, thermal vacuum, cryogeni↗
NASA NTRS2023

A Multi-Sensor, Low Volume, Automated Culture System for Space Biology Experiments

Optical density (absorbance) is commonly used in microbiology to measure cell concentration and other colorimetric indicators. It is the main type of bioscience data returned from the BioSentinel small spacecraft mission, which was recently launched as a secondary payload on Artemis I. The flight unit takes absorbance measurements of yeast cultures at 570 nm, 630 nm, and 850 nm to track cell concentration and oxidation-reduction (redox) state of the metabolic indicator dye alamarBlue over time [1]. Because the data returned from a small spacecraft mission is necessarily limited, BioSentinel uses a specialized ground-based experiment apparatus to map the absorbance data onto several other parameters. This culture apparatus is composed of a polycarbonate base and lid which contain ports for several commercial sensors, including a standard 12 mm dissolved oxygen probe, gaseous CO2, fluid pressure, and two micro-probes for measuring pH and redox potential. It also contains a pressure relief valve, a rubber membrane for culture interaction, and a 12mm port for the custom optical probe designed to match in-flight measurements. Modules in two corners expand the culture volume into narrow columns, enabling solid-state optical density measurement and dielectric spectroscopy. The apparatus can be fit to a plate for magnetic stirring. The apparatus’s optical probe allows mapping between the flight unit’s optical data and the additional parameters measured by the ground-based experiments. Within the probe, a linear actuator pulls a plunger, drawing culture volume into the optical path. The actuator then pushes out the plunger and culture volume, cleaning any stray yeast from the inside surface of the probe. The probe chassis is 3D-printed from biocompatible resin with the optoelectronics cured inside an optically clear conformal coat which functions as a lens. To optimize the probe’s dimensions, including optical path, a test harness was developed to manipulate and measure distance while the LED light sources and photodiode detector are in operation. The test harness was composed of two 3/64” thick polycarbonate plates mounted to a set of calipers. The LEDs and photodiode were mounted on the outside of each plate. A cuvette of sample fluid was then clamped between the plates in line between the LEDs and photodiode. The test harness generated a 78% signal change between water and a dye standard for the green (570 nm) LED, a 90% signal change for the red (630 nm) LED, and a 25% signal change between water and overgrown yeast for the infrared (850 nm) LED. The improvements to the ground experiment apparatus (culture volume reduction, inclusion of an optical probe to measure flight-like optical data, and magnetic stirring for culture homogeneity) allow for more flight-like measurements to be taken and more accurate mapping of these additional parameters to the optical data returned from the flight unit. This enhancement to mission science return will give insight into how deep space radiation may affect human biology for future long-term space exploration.

Multi-Sensor↗
DOE OSTI2022

Pressure Engineering Promising Transparent Oxides with Large Conductivity Enhancement and Strong Thermal Stability

Abstract Transparent conducting oxides (TCO) with high electrical conductivity and high visible light transparency are desired for a wide range of high‐impact engineering. Yet, usually, a compromise must be made between conductivity and transparency, limiting the practical application of a TCO to the next level. Furthermore, TCO performance is highly sensitive to composition, so conventional synthesis methods, such as chemical doping, cannot unravel the mysteries of the quantitative structure–performance relationship. Thus, improving the fundamental understanding or creating materials‐by‐design has limited success. Here, a strategy is proposed to modulate the lattice and electronic and optical properties precisely by applying pressure on a TCO. Strikingly, after compression–decompression treatment on the indium titanium oxides (ITiO), a highly transparent and metastable phase with two orders of magnitude enhancement in conductivity is synthesized from an irreversible phase transition. Moreover, this phase possesses previously unattainable filter efficiency on hazardous blue light up to 600 °C, providing potential for healthcare‐related applications with strong thermal stability up to 200 °C. These results demonstrate that pressure engineering is a clean and effective tool for tailoring functional materials that are not achievable by other means, providing an exciting alternative property‐tuning dimension in materials science.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Nanosynthesis by atmospheric arc discharges excited with pulsed-DC power: a review

Plasma technology is actively used for nanoparticle synthesis and modification. All plasma techniques share the ambition of providing high quality, nanostructured materials with full control over their crystalline state and functional properties. Pulsed-DC physical/chemical vapour deposition, high power impulse magnetron sputtering, and pulsed cathodic arc are consolidated low-temperature plasma processes for the synthesis of high-quality nanocomposite films in vacuum environment. However, atmospheric arc discharge stands out thanks to the high throughput, wide variety, and excellent quality of obtained stand-alone nanomaterials, mainly core–shell nanoparticles, transition metal dichalcogenide monolayers, and carbon-based nanostructures, like graphene and carbon nanotubes. Unique capabilities of this arc technique are due to its flexibility and wide range of plasma parameters achievable by modulation of the frequency, duty cycle, and amplitude of pulse waveform. The many possibilities offered by pulsed arc discharges applied on synthesis of low-dimensional materials are reviewed here. Periodical variations in temperature and density of the pulsing arc plasma enable nanosynthesis with a more rational use of the supplied power. Parameters such as plasma composition, consumed power, process stability, material properties, and economical aspects, are discussed. Lastly a brief outlook towards future tendencies of nanomaterial preparation is proposed. Atmospheric pulsed arcs constitute promising, clean processes providing ecological and sustainable development in the production of nanomaterials both in industry and research laboratories.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

High-Resolution LiDAR Observations for Coupled Effects of Dry-Air Entrainment and Haze-Cloud Interactions on Cloud Vertical Structure

This study demonstrates the high-resolution profiling of cloud microphysics in a laboratory chamber using Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) LiDAR. We present a novel retrieval method to derive vertical extinction (𝜎) profiles, constrained by in situ measurements, to diagnose responses to dry-air entrainment. In clean clouds, the LiDAR signals and retrieved 𝜎 remain relatively uniform, with entrainment effects confined to the upper layer. In contrast, polluted clouds exhibit strong vertical variability and a transition to a water-vapor-limited state. Entrainment significantly enhances the haze number concentration (𝑁ℎ), particularly near the bottom, creating highly height-dependent extinction profiles for polluted clouds. Our results highlight the capability of high-resolution LiDAR in capturing fine-scale vertical inhomogeneities. This approach provides a robust framework for quantifying how aerosol loading modulates entrainment sensitivity, offering new insights into the transition between buffered and water-vapor-limited regimes.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2008

James Webb Space Telescope: Frequently Asked Questions for Scientists and Engineers

JWST will be tested incrementally during its construction, starting with individual mirrors and instruments (including cameras and spectrometers) and building up to the full observatory. JWST's mirrors and the telescope structure are first each tested individually, including optical testing of the mirrors and alignment testing of the structure inside a cold thermal-vacuum chamber. The mirrors are then installed on the telescope structure in a clean room at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). In parallel to the telescope assembly and alignment, the instruments are being built and tested, again first individually, and then as part of an integrated instrument assembly. The integrated instrument assembly will be tested in a thermal-vacuum chamber at GSFC using an optical simulator of the telescope. This testing makes sure the instruments are properly aligned relative to each other and also provides an independent check of the individual tests. After both the telescope and the integrated instrument module are successfully assembled, the integrated instrument module will be installed onto the telescope, and the combined system will be sent to Johnson Space Flight Center (JSC) where it will be optically tested in one of the JSC chambers. The process includes testing the 18 primary mirror segments acting as a single primary mirror, and testing the end-to-end system. The final system test will assure that the combined telescope and instruments are focused and aligned properly, and that the alignment, once in space, will be within the range of the actively controlled optics. In general, the individual optical tests of instruments and mirrors are the most accurate. The final system tests provide a cost-effective check that no major problem has occurred during assembly. In addition, independent optical checks of earlier tests will be made as the full system is assembled, providing confidence that there are no major problems.

Gardner, Jonathan P.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Electron doping of NdNiO 3 thin films using dual chamber CaH 2 annealing

Hydrogen donor doping has been exploited as a strategy to manipulate the electronic structure and electrical properties of functional oxide systems. Especially, the development of synthetic methods to achieve electron doping of perovskite rare-earth nickelate thin films utilizing interstitial hydrogen is highly desirable considering the rich electronic phase diagram hosting several functional properties. Here, in this work, we present the hydrogenation of NdNiO 3 (NNO) thin films using CaH 2 annealing and the resulting giant modulation of electrical resistivity in hydrogenated NNO (H–NNO) thin films. Magnetron sputtering was employed to deposit epitaxial ~60 nm-thin NNO films on single crystal LaAlO 3 (LAO) substrates. The formation of the pristine perovskite NNO phase was realized after annealing the films at 500 °C for 24 h. CaH 2 annealing of NNO thin films for time durations ranging from 1 to 6 h was performed in a vacuumed ampule with two interconnected chambers at 280 °C. The two-chamber design enables a simple and clean approach for hydrogen doping without physical contact between the powder and sample of interest. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy revealed the formation of NNO in pristine samples, and the subsequent hydrogen incorporation upon CaH 2 annealing without forming any impurity phases. The conversion of the oxidation state of Ni towards +2 upon CaH 2 annealing was probed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Consequently, a substantial increase in the room-temperature resistivity was observed upon CaH 2 annealing indicating the formation of a strongly correlated electronic configuration of Ni in H–NNO due to electron doping. Overall, the findings of this study highlight the versatility of CaH 2 annealing as an electron doping method to tune the electrical properties of correlated oxides at low temperatures.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRS2017

International Space Station (ISS) Bacterial Filter Elements (BFEs): Filter Efficiency and Pressure Testing of Returned Units

The air revitalization system aboard the International Space Station (ISS) provides the vital function of maintaining a clean cabin environment for the crew and the hardware. This becomes a serious challenge in pressurized space compartments since no outside air ventilation is possible, and a larger particulate load is imposed on the filtration system due to lack of sedimentation due to the microgravity environment in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support (ECLS) system architecture in the U.S. Segment uses a distributed particulate filtration approach consisting of traditional High-Efficiency Particulate Adsorption (HEPA) media filters deployed at multiple locations in each U.S. Segment module; these filters are referred to as Bacterial Filter Elements, or BFEs. These filters see a replacement interval, as part of maintenance, of 2-5 years dependent on location in the ISS. In this work, we present particulate removal efficiency, pressure drop, and leak test results for a sample set of 8 BFEs returned from the ISS after filter replacement. The results can potentially be utilized by the ISS Program to ascertain whether the present replacement interval can be maintained or extended to balance the on-ground filter inventory with extension of the lifetime of ISS beyond 2024. These results can also provide meaningful guidance for particulate filter designs under consideration for future deep space exploration missions.

Filtration↗
DOE OSTI2026

Core Model Proposal #410: Updates to Socioeconomic and Macroeconomic Data, Processing Structure, and Visualization

This Core Model Proposal (CMP) comprehensively restructures and updates the macroeconomic and socioeconomic modules in gcamdata. It includes visualizations of key data inputs, accounting identities, and data flows in the context of GCAM-Macro-KLEM. Major improvements include: (1) updating the Penn World Table (PWT) to version 10 and incorporating a new source, the Global Macro Database (GMD); (2) updating the SSP socioeconomics database from version 3.0.1 to 3.2; (3) introducing SSP-specific differentiation of employment and labor force data; (4) improving data integration between national accounts (from PWT, GMD, and GTAP) and GDP/population data from external sources; and (5) general data cleaning and structural refinements. We document the data sources and key assumptions used throughout the processing. These updates establish the foundation for the forthcoming KLEAM version of GCAM-macro.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
NASA NTRS2008

Recent Developments in the Alignment and Test Plans for the James Webb Space Telescope Integrated Science Instrument Module

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a 6.6m diameter, segmented, deployable telescope for cryogenic IR space astronomy (approximately 40K). The JWST Observatory architecture includes the Optical Telescope Element (OTE) and the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) element that contains four science instruments (SI) including a Guider. The SIs and Guider are mounted to a composite metering structure with outer dimensions of 2.1 x 2.2 x 1.9m. The SI and Guider units are integrated to the ISIM structure and optically tested at NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center as an instrument suite using an OTE SIMulator (OSIM). OSIM is a high-fidelity, cryogenic JWST telescope simulator that features a approximately 1.5m diameter powered mirror. The SIs are aligned to the structure's coordinate system under ambient, clean room conditions using laser tracker and theodolite metrology. Temperature-induced mechanical SI alignment and structural changes are measured using a photogrammetric measurement system at ambient and cryogenic temperatures. OSIM is aligned to the ISIM mechanical coordinate system at the cryogenic operating temperature via internal mechanisms and feedback from alignment sensors in six degrees of freedom. SI performance, including focus, pupil shear and wavefront error, is evaluated at the operating temperature using OSIM. We present an updated plan for the assembly and ambient and cryogenic optical alignment, test and verification of the ISIM element.

Ohl, Raymond↗
DOE OSTI2023

Higher-order dispersion compensating pulse shaper via amplitude spectral filtering and nonlinear phase accumulation

A method of pulse shaping using spectral filtering, positive chirp, and self-phase modulation to control the accumulated higher-order phase terms of the spectral phase. This pulse shaping method has particular advantage in fiber chirped pulse amplification (FCPA) systems, where there are two effects: (1) an offsetting of the fourth order phase via nonlinear phase accumulation, allowing for a higher Strehl ratio (i.e., a cleaner pulse), higher peak power pulse and (2) enabling power scaling to higher pulse energies without the increased nonlinear phase accumulation leading to pulse breakup. This technique can be used both in a passive system with no amplification to clean up an existing pulse, and in an amplifier system to enable higher performance operation (shorter pulses, cleaner pulses, higher energy pulses).

Domingue, Scott R.↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Transverse Structure of the Deuteron with Drell-Yan

We propose to measure neutron and deuteron transversity TMDs. The quark transversity distributions of the nucleon are decoupled from the deuteron gluon transversity in the $Q^2$ evolution due to the chiral-odd property in the transversely-polarized target. The gluon transversity TMD only exists for targets of spin greater or equal to 1 and does not mix with quark distributions at leading twist, thereby providing a particularly clean probe of gluonic degrees of freedom. This experiment would be the first of its kind and would probe the gluonic structure of the deuteron, investigating exotic glue contributions in the nucleus not associated with individual nucleons. This experiment can be performed with the SpinQuest polarized target recently assembled for experiment E1039 and the spectrometer already in place in NM4. This new experimental setup would require very minimal modification to the target system and no modification to the detector package. An additional RF-circuit and target coil are necessary to RF-modulate across the domain of the Larmor frequency to manipulate the solid-state target spin population densities. Dedicated beam-time with this novel target system is required to achieve our physics goals.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Active Cancellation of Servo-Induced Noise on Stabilized Lasers via Feedforward

Many precision laser applications require active frequency stabilization. However, such stabilization loops operate by pushing noise to frequencies outside their bandwidth, leading to large “servo bumps” that can have deleterious effects for certain applications. The prevailing approach to filtering this noise is to pass the laser through a high-finesse optical cavity, which places constraints on the system design. Here, we propose and demonstrate a different approach where a frequency error signal is derived from a beat note between the laser and the light that passes through the reference cavity. The phase noise derived from this beat note is fed forward to an electro-optic modulator after the laser, carefully accounting for relative delay, for real-time frequency correction. With a hertz-line-width laser, we show ≳20 dB noise suppression at the peak of the servo bump (approximately 250 kHz) and a noise-suppression bandwidth of approximately 5 MHz—well beyond the servo bump. By simulating the Rabi dynamics of a two-level atom with our measured data, we demonstrate substantial improvements to the pulse fidelity over a wide range of Rabi frequencies. Here, our approach offers a simple and versatile method for obtaining a clean spectrum of a narrow-line-width laser, as required in many emerging applications of cold atoms, and is readily compatible with commercial systems that may even include wavelength conversion.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Technoeconomic Analysis of Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) with WS 2 /Carbon Composite as Counter Electrode Material

Exploration of clean and renewable energy materials is necessary due to the coming energy crisis and environmental problems. Solar energy is one of the favorable energy sources because of the continuous energy reservoir and its affluence. Silicon-based solar devices are expensive due to their complicated production process, which limits this technology for urban and other commercial applications. Among the third generation of solar cells, Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) have attracted widespread attention as potential cost-effective alternatives to silicon-based solar cells. In this paper, the commercializing potential of the DSSCs is investigated. A module is introduced where the materials, equipment, and distribution of direct manufacturing costs are calculated. The manufacturing costs and the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of these DSSCs for a system lifetime of 25 years were determined to be USD 22.40 per m 2 and USD 0.0438 per kWh and the module price of this technology is USD 0.18 per W and the total installed system cost is USD 0.88 per W in Kansas which suggest that this PV technology could challenge other leading PV technologies.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗