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The need for an aircraft combining the efficient vertical takeoff and landing capability of a helicopter with the efficient high speed characteristics of a fixed wing turboprop is examined. The ability of the tilt rotor concept to fill this requirement and examples as to its potential usefulness in both military and civil missions is discussed.
The critical issues in viscous flow simulations, such as boundary-layer separation, entrainment, turbulence modeling, and compressibility, are discussed with regard to the ground effects problem for vertical-takeoff-and-landing (VTOL) aircraft. A simulation of the two-dimensional incompressible lift jet in ground proximity is based on solution of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations and a turbulence-model equation which are written in stream function-vorticity form and are solved using Hoffman's augmented-central-difference algorithm. The resulting equations and their shortcomings are discussed when the technique is extended to two-dimensional compressible and three-dimensional incompressible flows.
The results of a study of dual mode propulsion concepts applied to advanced earth orbital transportation systems using reuseable single stage to orbit vehicle concepts were summarized. Both series burn and parallel burn modes of propulsion were analyzed for vertical takeoff, horizontal landing vehicles based on accelerated technology goals. A major study objective was to assess the merits of dual mode main propulsion concepts compared to single mode concepts for carrying payloads of Space Shuttle type to orbit.
The fundamental aeroacoustic mechanisms responsible for noise generation on a rotating blade are theoretically examined. Their contribution to the overall rotor sound pressure level is predicted. Results from a theory for airfoil trailing edge noise are presented. Modifications and extensions to other source theories are described where it is necessary to account for unique aspects of circulation control (CC) aerodynamics. The circulation control rotor (CCR), as embodied on an X-wing vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft, is used as an example for computational purposes, although many of the theoretical results presented are generally applicable to other CC applications (such as low speed rotors, propellers, compressors, and fixed wing aircraft). Using the analytical models, it is shown that the utilization CC aerodynamics theoretically makes possible unprecedented advances in rotor noise reduction. For the X-wing VTOL these reductions appear to be feasible without incurring significant attendant performance and weight penalties.
A study of an array of advanced earth-to-orbit space transportation systems with a focus on mass properties and technology requirements is presented. Methods of estimating weights of these vehicles differ from those used for commercial and military aircraft; the new techniques emphasizing winged horizontal and vertical takeoff advanced systems are described utilizing the space shuttle subsystem data base for the weight estimating equations. The weight equations require information on mission profile, the structural materials, the thermal protection system, and the ascent propulsion system, allowing for the type of construction and various propellant tank shapes. The overall system weights are calculated using this information and incorporated into the Systems Engineering Mass Properties Computer Program.
Recent studies indicate the promise of advanced LTA vehicles that can carry heavy loads and be capable of vertical takeoff and landing. Such airships may be combinations of aerostats and helicopters or modern versions of more conventional aircraft. These latter types would not be competitive with high speed modern jet air transports on established routes, but they would have a role in special situations and as long-endurance Naval and coastal surveillance aircraft. The most attractive and immediate market for modern airships in the field of short-range and heavy lift.
The influence of different types of predictor displays in a longitudinal vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) hover task is analyzed in a theoretical study. Several cases with differing amounts of predictive and rate information are compared. The optimal control model of the human operator is used to estimate human and system performance in terms of root-mean-square (rms) values and to compute optimized attention allocation. The only part of the model which is varied to predict these data is the observation matrix. Typical cases are selected for a subsequent experimental validation. The rms values as well as eye-movement data are recorded. The results agree favorably with those of the theoretical study in terms of relative differences. Better matching is achieved by revised model input data.
Results from wind tunnel and flight tests investigations for V/STOL aircraft are reviewed. Primary emphasis is given to technical results relating to three types of subsonic aircraft: a quiet STOL aircraft; a tilt rotor aircraft; and a turbofan V/STOL aircraft. Comparison and correlation between theoretical and experimental results and between wind tunnel and flight test results, is made. The quiet STOL aircraft technology results are primarily those derived from the NASA/Boeing Quiet Short Haul Technology (QSRA) program. The QSRA aircraft uses an upper surface blown flap and develops a usable engine-out landing approach lift coefficient of 5.5 and landing distances less than 1,000 ft. The tilt rotor aircraft technology results are those obtained from the NASA/Army/Navy/Bell (XV-15-TRRA) aircraft flight investigations. The TRRA is a twin rotor research aircraft capable of vertical takeoff and landing and cruise speeds of 300 knots. The turbofan V/STOL aircraft technology results are from static ground facility and wind tunnel investigations of a NASA/NAVY/Grumman full scale lift/cruise fan aircraft model, which features two tilting nacelles with TF-34 engines.
Experimental aerodynamic and performance data were obtained from a TF34 engine. Part span variable inlet guide vanes mounted in front of the fan on the TF34 engine were tested to demonstrate the feasibility of modulating air flow and thrust for vertical takeoff aircraft systems. The fan was mapped to stall for a range of speeds and variable inlet guide were settings. Modulated fan tip performance and unmodulated hub performance were evaluated with a without an extended fan bypass splitter. The effect of a crosswind distortion screen on performance was also evaluated.
An investigation has been conducted to determine preliminary wing designs for a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicle. This vehicle has the following mission profile: vertical takeoff, boost-to-orbit, hypersonic reentry, and horizontal landing. For this vehicle, the wing is sized to meet Space Shuttle reentry aerodynamic requirements for hypersonic trim and horizontal landing, since reentry trajectories for the Shuttle and the SSTO vehicle are similar. A hypersonic and subsonic aerodynamic computer program was developed and combined with an existing optimization algorithm to automatically size and shape a wing which satisfies both reentry and landing requirements while also maintaining a minimum mass design. With this procedure, the influence of hypersonic and subsonic aerodynamic requirements, control surface size, and center-of-gravity positions on the initial wing design were investigated.
The results obtained in the early stages of a research program to develop aerodynamic technology for single-engine V/STOL fighter/attack aircraft projected for the post-1990 period are summarized. This program includes industry studies jointly sponsored by NASA and the Navy. Four contractors have identified promising concepts featuring a variety of approaches for providing propulsive lift. Vertical takeoff gross weights range from about 10,000 to 13,600 kg (22,000 to 30,000 lb). The aircraft have supersonic capability, are highly maneuverable, and have significant short takeoff overload capability. The contractors have estimated the aerodynamics and identified aerodynamic uncertainties associated with their concepts. Wind-tunnel research programs will be formulated to investigate these uncertainties. A description of the concepts is emphasized.
Two supersonic vertical takeoff or landing (VTOL) aircraft engine types, a conventional medium bypass ratio turbofan, and a turbine bypass turbojet were studied. The aircraft assumed was a clipped delta wing with canard configuration. A VTOL deck launched intercept, DLI, mission with Mach 1.6 dash and cruise segments was used as the design mission. Several alternate missions requiring extended subsonic capabilities were analyzed. Comparisons were made between the turbofan (TF) and the turbine bypass turbojet (TBE) engines in airplane types using a Remote Augmented Lift Systems, RALS and a Lift plus Lift Cruise system (L+LC). The figure of merit was takeoff gross weight for the VTOL DLI mission. The results of the study show that the turbine bypass turbojet and the conventional turbofan are competitive engines for both type of aircraft in terms of takeoff gross weight and range. However, the turbine bypass turbojet would be a simpler engine and may result in more attractive life cycle costs and reduced maintenance. The RALS and L+LC airplane types with either TBE or TF engines have approximately the same aircraft takeoff gross weight.
Attention is given to a short takeoff vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft reaction control system (RCS) design study. The STOVL fighter/attack aircraft employs an existing turbofan engine, and its hover requirement places a premium on weight reduction, which eliminates prospective nonairbreathing RCSs. A simple engine compressor bleed RCS degrades overall performance to an unacceptable degree, and the supersonic requirement precludes the large volume alternatives of thermal or ejector thrust augmentation systems as well as the ducting of engine exhaust gases and the use of a dedicated turbojet. The only system which addressed performance criteria without requiring major engine modifications was a dedicated load compressor driven by an auxilliary power unit.
In reviewing the years of aviation development, it can be seen that vertical-takeoff-and-landing (VTOL) flight was considered before conventional fixed-wing operations. However, it has been difficult to develop a VTOL capability. The present investigation is concerned with a review of the historical development of VTOL aircraft, taking into account lessons learned from a selected group of concepts. Attention is given to the Flying Bedsteads, the tail-sitter designs, the Air Test Vehicle (ATV) and X-14 aircraft, the SC-1, the XV-3 tilt-rotor aircraft, the VZ3-RY deflected slipstream, the X-18 tilt wing, the VZ-2 tilt wing, the VZ-4 ducted fan, the Harrier, the XV-4A (Hummingbird), the Forger, and the XV-15 advanced tilt rotor.
Past and current research in the aeronautical field conducted by NASA is reviewed. The first national center for aeronautical research, the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, was established in 1917 by the then formed National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Two other research centers established later by NACA (Lewis and Ames) were staffed with research cadres from Langley. These three research centers formed the nucleus of NASA when it was established in 1958. Studies conducted today by NASA's research centers include: a concept for commuter-style aircraft, turbofan engines for military supersonic fighter aircraft, strength and durability of man-made fiber materials, and maneuverability problems in high speed aircraft. In addition, at Ames, research is being conducted on short-haul aviation, and short and vertical takeoff while at Lewis studies concentrate on propulsion system and engines. At Langley the emphasis is on basic research, stressing aircraft structure improvements, stall avoidance and noise abatement. Finally, the importance of NASA's educational program is discussed.
Integrations trends in aircraft are discussed with an eye to manifestations in future aircraft designs through interdisciplinary technology integration. Current practices use software changes or small hardware fixes to solve problems late in the design process, e.g., low static stability to upgrade fuel efficiency. A total energy control system has been devised to integrate autopilot and autothrottle functions, thereby eliminating hardware, reducing the software, pilot workload, and cost, and improving flight efficiency and performance. Integrated active controls offer reduced weight and larger payloads for transport aircraft. The introduction of vectored thrust may eliminate horizontal and vertical stabilizers, and location of the thrust at the vehicle center of gravity can provide vertical takeoff and landing capabilities. It is suggested that further efforts will open a new discipline, aeroservoelasticity, and tests will become multidisciplinary, involving controls, aerodynamics, propulsion and structures.
A piloted simulation evaluation was conducted to assess the merits of a predictive lull/swell guidance law for landing a vertical takeoff and landing aircraft at sea. Two cases were evaluated. The first was performed by the pilot without the aid of the lull/swell guidance indicator, which indicates a landing opportunity. The second was performed in a similar manner with the aid of the guidance indicator. The pilot was instructed to use the guidance indicator only as a landing aid. The results indicated the pilots were able to visually determine ship lulls and swells prior to landing. However, use of the lull/swell guidance resulted in increased pilot confidence in the existence of a landing opportunity, which resulted in significantly shorter hover waiting times prior to landing. The performance of the lull/swell guidance was conservative, in that it forecast the onset of deck lulls and swells later than the pilot could detect them, but with greater reliability and therefore greater pilot confidence. In no instances did the guidance algorithm predict a false ship lull with which the pilot did not agree.
A method for designing an automatic flight controller for short and vertical takeoff aircraft is presently being developed at NASA Ames Research Center. This technique involves transformations of nonlinear systems to controllable linear systems and takes into account the nonlinearities of the aircraft. In general, the transformations cannot always be given in closed form. Using partial differential equations, an approximate linear system, called the modified tangent model, was recently introduced. A linear transformation of this tangent model to Brunovsky canonical form can be constructed, and from this an approximation of an exact transformation for the nonlinear system can be found. It is shown that a canonical expansion in Lie brackets about the point x(0) yields the same modified tangent model.