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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 163 records · Page 9
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Alumina Priming-Mediated Enhanced Binding of Diethylzinc with Carbonyl Groups in Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) during Vapor-Phase Infiltration

Vapor-phase infiltration (VPI) of inorganic materials in polymers is increasingly becoming popular for synthesizing various functional hybrid materials. While AlO x infiltration using trimethylaluminum (TMA) has been extensively studied, the mechanism of diethylzinc (DEZ)-based ZnO x infiltration, especially one that is initiated by AlO x priming, has not received much attention because highly reactive hydroxyl groups generated by AlO x -priming are expected to dominate the initial binding of DEZ, thus enabling the overall ZnO x VPI. Here, we interrogate the ZnO x infiltration mechanism in AlO x -primed poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) in comparison to the control AlO x -only infiltration by utilizing a suite of complementary characterizations, including quartz crystal microbalance mass gain measurement, transmission electron microscopy, infrared reflection–absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS), and synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The multivalent TMA precursor and associated hyperbranched AlO x network can quickly saturate the AlO x infiltration by clogging the polymer-free volume near the top. On the contrary, the ZnO x infiltration using divalent DEZ precursor, once activated via AlO x -priming, can lead to accelerated ZnOx infiltration. With the help of IRRAS, XAS, and density functional theory (DFT) simulations, we uncover that the AlO x -priming enhances the reactivity of neighboring carbonyl groups toward DEZ and opens up simultaneous reaction pathways, leading to accelerated high-fidelity infiltration of ZnO x .

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Sources and Composition of Organic Aerosols in the Central Arctic during Spring and Summer

Organic aerosols (OA) are a major component of Arctic aerosol mass and influence the region’s radiation budget, yet their sources and physicochemical properties remain largely unknown. We investigate OA sources and climate-relevant characteristics over the central Arctic Ocean in spring and summer, by applying positive matrix factorization to aerosol mass spectrometry data from two ship-based expeditions (2018 and 2020), complemented by total and interstitial aerosol measurements during fog periods. Six distinct OA factors were identified: haze-related OA, Arctic oxygenated OA, two mixed-OA types resembling biomass burning and primary marine OA linked to warm-air intrusions, marine OA, and hydrocarbon-related OA. Seasonal transitions strongly shaped OA composition. Following polar sunrise, highly oxygenated OA, likely formed secondarily from photo-oxidized volatile organic compounds, became dominant. After the polar vortex collapsed in May, episodic spikes in marine OA from the marginal ice zone appeared, alongside a reduced influence from Eurasian anthropogenic sources. These transitions influenced OA oxidation state and related properties including volatility, acidity, and hygroscopicity, highlighting the role of the Arctic spring atmosphere as an active photochemical reactor. Overall, OA was highly oxidized, with particles activated in fog during summer showing even greater oxidation, suggesting that central Arctic OA can be highly cloud active.

Arctic haze↗
DOE OSTI2024

Effect of Pressure on Crystal Structure and Phonon Density of States of FeSi

The strongly correlated material FeSi displays several unusual thermal, magnetic, and structural properties under varying pressure-temperature (P-T) conditions. It is a potential thermoelectric alloy and a material with several geochemical implications as a possible constituent at the Earth's core-mantle boundary (CMB). Previous theoretical studies predicted a pressure-induced B20-B2 transition at ambient temperature below 40 GPa; however, experimentally, the structural transition is observed only at high P-T conditions. In this study, we have performed high-pressure powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) up to 90 GPa and Nuclear Resonant Inelastic X-ray Scattering (NRIXS) measurements up to 120 GPa to understand the phase stability and lattice dynamics. Our study provides evidence for a non-hydrostatic stress-induced B20-B2 transition in FeSi at around 36 GPa. We deduced the Fe partial phonon density of states (PDOS) and thermal parameters from NRIXS measurements up to 120 GPa and compared them with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Furthermore, the computations show pressure-induced metallization and the band gap closing around 12 GPa.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Resonant Tender X-ray Scattering for Disclosing the Backbone Conformation of Conjugated Polymers

The backbone conformation of conjugated polymers (CPs) is essential to their performance in electronic applications. Contrast-variation small-angle neutron scattering (CV-SANS) techniques were used to assess the CP’s backbone conformation, which relies on synthesis of deuterated polymers. Such a technique has been proven mature and effective. One drawback is that deuteration labeling might subtly alter polymer’s physical properties due to structural modifications. To address these challenges, we introduce a novel approach utilizing tender Xray scattering near the sulfur K-edge to distinctly evaluate the backbone versus whole chain conformation for a low-bandgap donor−acceptor CP, poly[(5,6-difluoro- 2,1,3-benzothiadiazol-4,7-diyl)-alt-(3,3‴-dialkyl-2,2′;5′,2″;5″,2‴-quaterthiophen-5,5‴- diyl)] (PffBT4T). For PffBT4T dissolved in trimethylbenzene (TMB), the sulfur K-edge is identified at approximately 2477 eV using near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS). Tender X-ray scattering conducted at presulfur K-edge and on-sulfur K-edge at elevated temperatures facilitated the distinction between the backbone and whole chain conformations. The results demonstrate that for highly flexible polymer, the backbone’s persistence length could be lower than that of the whole chains, suggesting a more flexible backbone. This rapid, label-free method enhances our ability to characterize CP’s backbone conformation efficiently, offering significant implications for the design and optimization of CPs for advanced electronics.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Machine Learning Framework for Characterizing Processing–Structure Relationship in Block Copolymer Thin Films

The morphology of block copolymers (BCPs) critically influences material properties and applications. This work introduces a machine learning (ML)-enabled, high-throughput framework for analyzing grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) data and atomic force microscopy (AFM) images to characterize BCP thin film morphology. A convolutional neural network was trained to classify AFM images by surface features, achieving 97% testing accuracy. Classified images were then analyzed to extract 2D grain size measurements from the samples in a high-throughput manner. ML models were trained to predict domain orientation based on processing parameters such as solvent ratio, additive type, and additive ratio. GISAXS-based properties were predicted with strong performances (R 2 > 0.75), while AFM-based property predictions were less accurate (R 2 < 0.60), likely due to the localized nature of AFM measurements compared to the bulk information captured by GISAXS. Beyond model performance, interpretability was addressed using SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP). SHAP analysis revealed that the additive ratio had the largest impact on morphological predictions, where additive provides the BCP chains with increased volume to rearrange into thermodynamically favorable morphologies. This interpretability helps validate model predictions and offers insight into parameter importance. Altogether, the presented framework combining high-throughput characterization and interpretable ML offers an approach to exploring and optimizing BCP thin film morphology across a broad processing landscape.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Mechanisms of Metal Additive-Induced Ordering During SNIPS Membrane Formation

Isoporous membranes can be fabricated by combining self-assembly with nonsolvent induced phase separation (SNIPS) using an amphiphilic block copolymer like polystyrene-b-poly(4-vinylpyridine) (SV). Poly(4-vinylpyridine) (V) is known to complex with metal salts, which are hypothesized to stabilize solution ordering and preserve structure during casting. We explored how the molar ratio of metal additive to the poly(4-vinylpyridine) block affected the final membrane morphology via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Dynamic light scattering (DLS), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and in situ grazing-incidence SAXS were used to track changes in solution ordering and chain conformation as a function of the molar ratio of the additive to the V block. Additives induced aggregation, promoted the formation of more compact conformations in solution, and facilitated micelle ordering onto lattices at optimal ratios. Furthermore, these experimental results were supported by random phase approximation calculations, which helped explain how the thermodynamic order–disorder transition shifts with additive binding strength. Stronger additive–polymer interactions reduced the block copolymer volume fraction required for ordering in solution, allowing ordered domains to form at lower polymer concentrations.

Additives↗
DOE OSTI2024

Multicaloric Cryocooling Using Heavy Rare-Earth Free La(Fe,Si) 13 -Based Compounds

The transition toward a carbon-neutral society based on renewable energies goes hand in hand with the availability of energy-efficient technologies. Here, magnetocaloric cooling is a very promising refrigeration technology to fulfill this role regarding cryogenic gas liquefaction. However, the current reliance on highly resource critical, heavy rare-earth-based compounds as magnetocaloric material makes global usage unsustainable. Here, we aim to mitigate this limitation through the utilization of a multicaloric cooling concept, which uses the external stimuli of isotropic pressure and magnetic field to tailor and induce magnetostructural phase transitions associated with large caloric effects. In this study, La 0.7 Ce 0.3 Fe 11.6 Si 1.4 is used as a nontoxic, low-cost, low-criticality multiferroic material to explore the potential, challenges, and peculiarities of multicaloric cryocooling, achieving maximum isothermal entropy changes up to −28 J (kg K) −1 in the temperature range from 190 K down to 30 K. Thus, the multicaloric cooling approach offers an additional degree of freedom to tailor the phase transition properties and may lead to energy-efficient and environmentally friendly gas liquefaction based on designed-for-purpose, noncritical multiferroic materials.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

First-Principles Assessment of ZnTe and CdSe as Prospective Tunnel Barriers at the InAs/Al Interface

Majorana zero modes are predicted to emerge in semiconductor/ superconductor interfaces, such as InAs/Al. Majorana modes could be utilized for fault tolerant topological qubits. However, their realization is hindered by materials challenges. The coupling between the superconductor and the semiconductor may be too strong for Majorana modes to emerge, due to effective doping of the semiconductor by the metallic contact. This could be mediated by adding a tunnel barrier of controlled thickness. We use density functional theory (DFT) with Hubbard U corrections, whose values are machine-learned via Bayesian optimization (BO), to assess ZnTe and CdSe as prospective tunnel barriers for the InAs/Al interface. The results of DFT +U(BO) for ZnTe are validated by comparison to angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). We then study bilayer interfaces of the three semiconductors with each other and with Al, as well as trilayer interfaces with a varying number of ZnTe or CdSe layers inserted between InAs and Al. We find that 16 atomic layers of either material completely insulate the InAs from metal induced gap states (MIGS). However, ZnTe and CdSe differ significantly in their band alignment, such that ZnTe forms an effective barrier for electrons, whereas CdSe forms a barrier for holes. Because of Fermi level pinning in the conduction band at the interface, only electron transport is relevant for InAs-based Majorana devices. Therefore, ZnTe is the better choice. Based on the results of our simulations, we suggest conducting experiments with ZnTe barriers in the thickness range of 6–18 atomic layers.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Identification of In Situ Generated High-Spin Fe(II)-N 4 Active Sites for Acidic Oxygen Reduction Reaction via Operando 57 Fe Mössbauer Spectroscopy

Iron-nitrogen-carbon (FeNC) catalysts are considered among the most promising alternative to Pt catalysts in acidic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), yet the geometric and electronic structures of the true active site under reaction conditions have not been clearly elucidated. Herein, we synthesized a representative FeNC catalyst by pyrolyzing Fe 3+ absorbed on ZIF-8-derived N-doped carbon at a mild temperature under the H 2 /Ar atmosphere, where a formation mechanism of FeN 4 sites through a Zn-mediated Fe nanoparticle atomization process was proposed. The resulting FeNC-750 catalyst shows high acidic ORR activity with a half-wave potential of 0.838 V and a peak power density of 1 W cm -2 in proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). By using operando 57 Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy on FeNC-750, it was revealed that the pyrrolic N-coordinated high-spin Fe 2+ N 4 sites, which are in situ generated from high-spin Fe 3+ N 4 during ORR, are identified as catalytic active states. Density functional theory calculations further verified that, compared to the pyridinic N-coordinated low-spin Fe 2+ N 4 , the pyrrolic N-coordinated high-spin Fe 2+ exhibits optimized adsorption energy for reaction intermediates, thereby lowering the energy barrier of the rate-determining step (RDS) and facilitating OH* desorption. In conclusion, this work provides both experimental and theoretical evidence of the true active site in the FeNC during acidic ORR, offering significant insights for the rational design of high-performance materials for acidic fuel cells.

FeNC catalyst↗
DOE OSTI2026

Hg Accumulation by Single-Cell Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria Methylating Mercury

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a potent neurotoxin that poses risks to ecosystems and human health. MeHg is produced by microbes following saturating-like kinetics. We hypothesize that this saturation reflects a limited intracellular mercury (Hg) accumulation. Here, in this study, we investigated Hg accumulation in Pseudodesulfovibrio hydrargyri BerOc1, a sulfate-reducing model strain able to methylate Hg. Cells were incubated with 0.5 and 2 μM of mercury (HgCl 2 ), and mercury localization was studied using synchrotron-based nano-X-ray fluorescence and high-resolution analytical electron microscopy. For both concentrations, Hg was detected in the bacterial cytosol, in addition to extracellular (Hg, S)-containing nanoparticles. Intracellular Hg levels were slightly higher at 2 μM than at 0.5 μM (1.61 vs 1.40 pg.mm –2 ), suggesting a regulated accumulation. However, the population exhibited heterogeneity in Hg accumulation, particularly at the highest Hg exposure, with some cells being Hg hyperaccumulators. Correlative imaging between Hg localization and cell viability revealed that these hyperaccumulating cells were non-active. Our results suggest that active cells regulate Hg accumulation. From an analytical perspective, a minor subpopulation of hyperaccumulating cells can bias bulk measurements and should be considered in interpreting Hg accumulation in microorganisms. Environmentally, these cells can impact Hg cycling by acting as a metal sink.

Intracellular accumulation↗
DOE OSTI2026

Oligoether-Functionalized PEDOT: Combining an EDOT Backbone with Polar Side Chains for Solution Processability and High Electrical Conductivity

Conjugated polymers functionalized with oligoether (OE)-based side chains are a key class of materials for various organic electronic applications, including transparent electrodes, thermoelectrics, electrochromic displays, and electrochemical transistors. Herein, we report a highly soluble OE-functionalized poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) homopolymer, prepared by direct (hetero)arylation polymerization, which allows solution processing to yield films with comparable redox properties to oxidatively polymerized PEDOT. This polymer, PEDOT(OE3), when optimally oxidatively doped, reaches among the highest electrical conductivities of any OE-functionalized polymer and is comparable to more synthetically complex OE-functionalized polymers. X-ray scattering and spectroscopy were utilized to rationalize the transport properties resulting from varying the doping level. Comparison of PEDOT(OE3) to a series of OE-functionalized dioxythiophenes with varying amounts of 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene units allows for a deeper understanding of structure–property relationships through charge-transport models. Ultimately, PEDOT(OE3) is shown to be a material with exceptional charge-transport properties and is promising for various applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

On-Chip Tuning of Superconductivity in Fullerides via Current-Driven Rb + Intercalation

An in-operando electro-intercalation method for the on-chip synthesis of alkali-metal-intercalated materials and their Raman spectroscopic and transport characterization in ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) is developed. We apply this method to synthesize fulleride superconductors via Rb + intercalation into a C 60 film. During the intercalation, we monitor the stoichiometry via UHV-Raman spectroscopy and probe superconductivity via transport measurements. An increase of the superconducting transition temperature from 7.0 K to 14.5 K is observed when the stoichiometry is tuned from Rb 2.7 C 60 to Rb 3 C 60 . In our experiment, an ionic Rb+ flux into the host material is induced by an applied electronic current via a Butler–Volmer-type mechanism. Electro-intercalation captivates through improved stoichiometric precision, the ability to smoothly vary stoichiometry via duration of current application, and the absence of a lower limit of the volume of the host material. It represents a powerful concept for the on-chip synthesis of intercalated materials, battery research, and beyond.

Raman↗
DOE OSTI2025

Nature of the Reactive Biferric Peroxy Intermediate P′ in the Arylamine Oxygenases and Related Binuclear Fe Enzymes

Binuclear nonheme iron enzymes activate O 2 to perform a wide range of chemical transformations. The process of O 2 activation typically involves a biferric peroxy-level intermediate P. It has been previously found that this intermediate undergoes further activation, either protonation or rearrangement to form P′ or further oxidation to form high-valent intermediates Q or X. Here, this study defines the structure of the P′ intermediate in the N-oxygenases CmlI (and AurF based on previous data) using nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) in conjugation with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. These results, combined with variable temperature variable field (VTVH) magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectroscopy on the 1-electron cryoreduced P′, define the structure of the P′ intermediate as a μ-1,2-hydroxoperoxo biferric site with a second hydroxide bridge. Reaction coordinate calculations demonstrate that single electron transfer (SET) is facilitated by protonation of the peroxo, activating its reductive cleavage, and that the additional hydroxide bridge does not impact this reaction. VTVH MCD studies further reveal that the hydroxide bridge is absent in the biferrous site, suggesting that during the O 2 reaction with the biferrous site, a water molecule forms the hydroxide bridge in providing the proton that activates the peroxide in P′ for reactivity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Unravelling the Stability Stressors of Atomically Dispersed Fe–N–C Oxygen Reduction Catalysts

Enhancing the catalytic stability of Fe–N–C catalysts for cathodic oxygen reduction in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) necessitates an in-depth understanding of their degradation mechanisms. Here, this study identifies key stressors affecting the stability of Fe–N–C catalysts, specifically acidic environment, oxygen (O 2 ), and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Through ex situ/operando experiments, we show that the oxidation of local carbon by acidic environment + O 2 + ROS, along with the demetalation of catalytic FeN x C y sites by O 2 or O 2 + ROS, is the primary factor responsible for the initial fast degradation of Fe–N–C catalysts. The demetalation of FeN x C y sites, influenced by O 2 , in particular by O 2 + ROS, leads to the subsequent gradual degradation of Fe–N–C. Notably, FeN 4 C 12 -type active sites are more susceptible to demetalation than FeN 4 C 10 -type sites in O 2 or O 2 + ROS. Our findings indicate that, besides constructing more stable FeN x C y sites, preventing local carbon oxidation and scavenging of ROS are all critical for maintaining the stability of Fe–N–C catalysts.

Xie, Xiaohong [Pacific Northwest National Laborato↗
DOE OSTI2026

Native Architecture of Wheat Straw Cell Walls: A Unified Model from X-ray Scattering and Solid-State NMR

Plant secondary cell walls constitute the dominant reservoir of renewable biomass, comprising tightly packed cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin at the nanoscale. Recent advances in solid-state NMR spectroscopy and the availability of small-angle X-ray scattering for biomass characterization have led to an accumulation of experimental data on cell wall organization, yet no explicit structure model has simultaneously satisfied both Xray and NMR observations. Using wheat straw as a model system, we propose a structural framework consistent with current knowledge of cellulose biosynthesis, X-ray scattering data, and one- and two-dimensional 13 C solid-state NMR spectra. In this model, 18-chain elementary fibrils align in parallel and populate the cross-section at random. Arabinose-substituted xylan shows no conformational dependence for cellulose-binding in wheat, and only a minor fraction of 2-fold xylan appears in close proximity to cellulose, unlike in Arabidopsis, where xylan is more tightly attached to the cellulose surface. While NMR data cannot unambiguously resolve the internal arrangement of the 18 glucan chains, X-ray scattering profiles uniquely constrain the fibril size and exclude the possibility of tight bundling in the intact walls. The specific interaction between the matrix polymers and the cellulose elementary fibrils must be reconsidered in light of the small interfibril spaces, which bring the matrix components into spatial proximity with cellulose even in the absence of attractive interactions. These findings provide fundamental molecular-level insight into cellulose fibril architecture and matrix−polymer interactions, resolving longstanding discrepancies between spectroscopic and scattering data and advancing our understanding of biopolymer assembly into structurally and functionally versatile lignocellulosic biomaterials.

Carbohydrates↗
DOE OSTI2025

Thermoelastic Properties of Iron-Rich Ringwoodite and the Deep Mantle Aerotherm of Mars

The Martian mantle is considered to have a higher Fe/Mg ratio than the Earth's mantle. Ringwoodite, γ-(Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 , is likely the dominant polymorph of olivine in the core-mantle boundary (CMB) region of Mars. We synthesized anhydrous iron-rich ringwoodite with molar Mg/(Mg + Fe) = 0.44 and determined its thermal equation of state up to 35 GPa and 750 K by synchrotron X-ray diffraction. Using a third order Birch-Murnaghan equation of state, we obtain K T0 = 182 (3) GPa, K' = 4.6 (2), and α 0 = 3.18 (6) × 10 -5 K -1 . Using these results and an updated mineralogical model with an iron-rich composition of Mg/(Mg + Fe) = 0.75 for the Martian mantle, we estimate ~1900 K for the temperature of the D1000 seismic discontinuity inside Mars. The resulting adiabat predicts a warm aerotherm, which could explain the presence of partial melt at the CMB of Mars recently detected with seismic data from the 2019 InSight mission.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Atmospheric River Detection Under Changing Seasonality and Mean-State Climate: ARTMIP Tier 2 Paleoclimate Experiments

Atmospheric rivers (ARs) are filamentary structures within the atmosphere that account for a substantial portion of poleward moisture transport and play an important role in Earth's hydroclimate. However, there is no one quantitative definition for what constitutes an atmospheric river, leading to uncertainty in quantifying how these systems respond to global change. This study seeks to better understand how different AR detection tools (ARDTs) respond to changes in climate states utilizing single-forcing climate model experiments under the aegis of the Atmospheric River Tracking Method Intercomparison Project (ARTMIP). We compare a simulation with an early Holocene orbital configuration and another with CO2 levels of the Last Glacial Maximum to a preindustrial control simulation to test how the ARDTs respond to changes in seasonality and mean climate state, respectively. We find good agreement among the algorithms in the AR response to the changing orbital configuration, with a poleward shift in AR frequency that tracks seasonal poleward shifts in atmospheric water vapor and zonal winds. In the low CO2 simulation, the algorithms generally agree on the sign of AR changes, but there is substantial spread in their magnitude, indicating that mean-state changes lead to larger uncertainty. This disagreement likely arises primarily from differences between algorithms in their thresholds for water vapor and its transport used for identifying ARs. These findings warrant caution in ARDT selection for paleoclimate and climate change studies in which there is a change to the mean climate state, as ARDT selection contributes substantial uncertainty in such cases.

Atmospheric river, paleoclimate↗
DOE OSTI2026

Corundum Discovered by SuperCam and the Perseverance Rover at Jezero Crater, Mars

Minerals provide clues to the type of geologic environments in which they form. The primary types of minerals that have been identified on Mars indicate a history dominated by volcanism followed by interaction with water. However, other minerals are sometimes found. Here we present results from the SuperCam instrument on the Perseverance rover in which the mineral corundum (α-Al2O3) has been identified using a technique called time-resolved luminescence spectroscopy. Corundum has a unique light-emitting (luminescence) feature based on two well-known peaks as well as the time it takes for this light to fade after being excited by a laser, which is referred to as the lifetime. Corundum forms in specific environments that are enriched in aluminum and depleted in silicon and have been subjected to high temperature and pressure. Such places include deep subsurface magmas or shallower locations that have been exposed to high temperature through tectonic processes or meteorite impacts. Given their small size, association with a mineral called plagioclase, and location on the heavily impacted crater rim, we propose that these corundum minerals formed through impact processes.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗