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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,585 records · Page 88
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Part I: Predicting performance of Purolite A532E resins for remediation of comingled contaminants in groundwater

Ion exchange (IX) resins are used in pump-and-treat (P&T) facilities to remove soluble groundwater contaminants. However, natural anions present at concentrations orders of magnitude higher than contaminants can compete for IX sites and impact resin lifecycles. Here, the Hanford Site’s 200 West Area P&T facility (Washington State, USA) was selected as a case study because it currently uses two IX resins: Purolite® A532E (A532E) to remove pertechnetate (TcO 4 - ) and DOWEX 21K (DOWEX) to remove uranium from groundwater. Nitrate (NO 3 - ), sulfate (SO 4 2- ), chloride (Cl - ), and carbonate (CO 3 2- ) anions have been identified to potentially compete for A532E and DOWEX IX sites. Hanford-relevant anion groundwater concentrations were used to design a series of laboratory-scale batch experiments to evaluate the impact of competing anions on resin performance and potential kinetic effects. These data are then modeled to obtain Cl--normalized equilibrium exchange coefficients (K) needed to predict IX resin performance. The work is presented in two parts, with IX performance evaluated for A532E in Part I and DOWEX in Part II. Part I results demonstrate that TcO 4 - uptake is not impacted by NO 3 - , SO 4 2- , Cl - , CO 3 2- (as HCO 3 - ) and U(VI) carbonate anions, with K TcO4-/Cl- > 4,000, likely due to the high selectivity of A532E trihexylammonium sites for the large, weakly hydrated TcO 4 - anion. Other anion K values were K NO3-/Cl- = 20, K SO4--/Cl- = 0.2, K HCO3-/Cl- = 0.09, K U/Cl- = 370–1000. These K values provide conservative parameters for predicting A532E performance, and demonstrate that, under these test conditions, A532E will remove TcO 4 - from current and future influent streams to meet groundwater treatment objectives.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2025

Creep performance and microstructure of grade 91 steel weldments with integrated welding and thermal processing

Ferritic-Martensitic steel welds typically require post weld heat treatment (PWHT) to restore toughness and high temperature performance. This off-line thermal process reduces disparities between weld and base metal, but can cause distortion, cracking, or simply be impractical due to assembly size and joint non-uniformity. Here we show integrated welding and thermal processing applied to modified 9Cr-1Mo (Grade 91) steel, favored for advanced power generation applications, performed in real time through the addition of a secondary heat source near the primary weld head. Optimal integrated processing reduces weld fusion and heat affected zone hardness by 125 HV, approaching performance of conventional 730 °C, 60 min PWHT processing. Microstructures and mechanical performance are compared for mechanized GTAW welds, with equivalent lifetimes noted in cross-weld creep rupture tests up to 234 MPa at 550 °C, and up to 104 MPa at 650 °C. The integrated process was validated on a Grade 91 pressure vessel with multipass cold wire feed GTAW. After 550 °C, 71.4 bar thermomechanical cyclic testing, the maximum weld hardness is <350 HV.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Atomic-scale tuned interface of nickel-rich cathode for enhanced electrochemical performance in lithium-ion batteries

The Ni-rich layered LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2 (NMC6 22 ) is one promising cathode for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), but suffers from poor cycling stability under high cutoff potentials. The performance degradation was reflected as capacity fading and voltage drop, having their roots in instable interface of NMC622. Aimed at improving interfacial stability, in this study, we deposited nanoscale ZrO 2 coatings conformally over NMC622 cathodes using atomic layer deposition (ALD). We found that, under a high cutoff voltage (4.5 V), the ALD ZrO 2 coatings evidently improved the performance of NMC622 cathode, showing better cyclability and higher sustainable capacity. In addition, the ALD coatings dramatically boosted the rate capability of NMC622. All these compelling performance results are ascribed to the atomic-scale tunable ZrO 2 coatings via ALD, which create stable interface and thereby inhibit unfavorable evolutions. In the study, we utilize a suite of characterization tools and various analyses to clarify the effects of ALD ZrO 2 coatings. This study will be helpful for improving the performance of nickel-rich cathodes via interfacial engineering using ALD.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

LCC-based framework for building envelope and structure co-design considering energy efficiency and natural hazard performance

Herein, this paper presents a life-cycle cost (LCC) informed co-design framework for building structures and envelope systems, holistically considering the influences of energy and natural hazard performance. The proposed method is consisted of a two-stage design and decision-making process, aiming to provide a quantitative guideline for building's structural and envelope co-design based on the its geographic locations. First, the building's structural configuration and envelope type are selected based on the life cycle cost. Then, the long-term cost effectiveness of various energy-saving building envelope options (e.g., high-performance glazing and insulation) is evaluated to refine the envelope design. The proposed co-design framework was demonstrated through the case study of a medium-size office building archetype in three locations with distinct climate conditions and seismic activities (i.e., Los Angeles, Memphis, and Boston). The results highlighted the interplay between building's structural (seismic) performance and the cost-effectiveness of energy-saving design options – e.g., for buildings located in high-seismic regions, seismic enhancing designs greatly reduce the paybak period of high performance building envelope by reducing the seismic loss; whereas for buildings located in regions with cold climate and low seismic risk such as Boston, spatial frame with high insulation building envelope shows the lowest LCC.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Fabrication of high-performance gas-diffusion-electrode based membrane-electrode assemblies

This paper demonstrates the fabrication and processing steps required to produce high performance fuel cell membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) based on spray-coated gas-diffusion electrodes (GDEs). It is demonstrated that coating the catalyst layer with a thin layer of ionomer and then hot pressing the GDEs to the membrane is required to achieve comparable catalyst activity and air performance to catalyst-coated-membrane MEAs. We show that there is a critical amount of ionomer required to achieve maximized performance. Using electron microscopy, we show that the combination of the ionomer overlayer and hot-pressing bonds the catalyst layer to the membrane, increasing the interfacial contact area and quality of this interface. We also find that the ionomer overlayer smooths the surface of the GDE and provides increased contact area between the GDE and the membrane. Additionally, we demonstrate that much less ionomer is required for high-performance than has been previously reported. Through model fitting of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, we show that this improvement in the catalyst layer - membrane interface reduces the effective catalyst layer resistance, which reduces Ohmic losses and increases catalyst utilization.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Al 2 O 3 /TiO 2 coated separators: Roll-to-roll processing and implications for improved battery safety and performance

Heat generation is one of the major concerns with lithium-ion batteries (LIB) while charging them at higher currents, which could inadvertently impact the rate performance and reduce the safety of the cell. Polymer separator is one of the least thermal conductive components of a LIB. In addition, commercial separators for LIB are made from polyolefin membranes that tend to shrink and curl at higher temperatures due to their lower melting temperature (~130 °C). Developing separators with improved thermal stability and higher electrolyte uptake is essential for enhancing the safety as well as the performance of the LIB. In this work, a thin layer of ceramic coatings (Al 2 O 3 and TiO 2 ) is applied on propylene (PP) membrane to improve the thermal stability and electrolyte affinity without compromising the rate performance. A slurry with 100% Al 2 O 3 coated on the polypropylene separator exhibited the best improvement in thermal stability ( shrinkage of 0.6% vs 6.0% for uncoated membrane) and excellent rate performance with 92% capacity retention at 2C. The Al 2 O 3 coated separator demonstrated excellent electrolyte wettability compared to the uncoated membrane. The cross-plane thermal conductivity of the ceramic coated separators is analyzed to understand their heat transfer behavior. The thermal conductivity of the separator is improved by ~3.2 times with the Al 2 O 3 coating.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Impact of secondary particle size and two-layer architectures on the high-rate performance of thick electrodes in lithium-ion battery pouch cells

Increasing lithium-ion battery gravimetric energy density to > 300 Wh/kg, while simultaneously meeting a cost target of $80/kWh, is of paramount importance to increasing the driving range and affordability of electric vehicles. One way to address this goal is to reduce inactive components by increasing electrode areal capacities, but conventional thick electrode designs typically perform poorly at high discharge rates due to Li + mass transport limitations. Here we compare the rate capability and cycle life of NMC 532/graphite pouch cells made with five different thick cathode and anode designs paired together in 25 combinations. We find that using different particle sizes to structure both the cathode and anode architectures in two-layer configurations results in a 2X capacity improvement over the worst-performing combination at high discharge rates (97 vs. 46 mAh/g at 2C). These different cathode/anode designs also translate to different cycle life performance, with many cells cycled at C/2 achieving ~80% capacity retention after 1000 cycles, and cells cycled at 2C showing different degrees of capacity fade. Altogether, these results demonstrate that simple, scalable changes in electrode design can significantly improve the performance of thick electrodes for high energy density batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Performance characterization of metal-supported solid-oxide fuel cell stacks at elevated pressure

Here, in this paper, we present results on performance characterization of solid oxide fuel cell stacks at elevated pressures up to 6 bar a . Stacks are designed and built by Ceres Power, Ltd., and are rated at 1- and 5- kW e . Fuel streams include H 2 / N 2 mixtures, synthetic natural-gas reformate, and simulated anode tail-gas recycle. Elevated operating pressure serves to increase stack electrochemical performance, with the most-pronounced gains found up to 4 bar a . Pressurized operation reduces the extent of methane conversion, promoting more-uniform internal reforming and cooling within the stack. Such cooling is critical at higher-current conditions. A previously developed one dimensional computational stack model is used to provide insight into stack operation. Pressurization is found to slightly increase internal thermal gradients, while promoting more-uniform reactant-concentration profiles across the cell, reducing the likelihood of local fuel starvation. The high fuel dilution brought by anode recycle can modestly decrease stack performance; however, this decrease is recovered through elevated-pressure operation at 3 bar a . Anode recycle further promotes compositional uniformity across the cell. These results reflect that pressurized operation can promote stack performance, while potentially promoting long-term stack durability through uniformity in stack environmental conditions.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of high scandium doping in barium zirconate on nickel diffusion and performance of proton-conducting solid oxide electrolyzer cells

Proton-conducting solid oxide electrolyzer cells (p-SOECs) are emerging but promising technologies for hydrogen production. However, due to the lack of a robust electrolyte, p-SOECs struggle simultaneously to display high performance, Faradaic efficiency, and durability. Motivated by its high proton concentrations and stability as a barium zirconate, we have investigated BaZr 0.6 Sc 0.4 O 3-δ (BZSc40) as a potential next-generation p-SOEC electrolyte. Here, we found elevated levels of NiO diffusion through BZSc40 electrolytes during high-temperature sintering, attributed to the large oxygen vacancy concentrations present in BZSc40, as revealed by first-principle computational results. Controlling NiO diffusion is critical, as it can facilitate densification and grain size growth, but it may also detrimentally impact performance by causing electronic leakage. By optimizing sintering temperature when fabricating BZSc40 cells, we successfully controlled NiO diffusion, achieving sufficient electrolyte densification along with high performance and Faradaic efficiency. BZSc40 cells reached −0.99 A/cm 2 at 1.3 V and 600 °C and exhibited enhanced durability with a 3.37 mV/kh degradation rate at −0.8 A/cm 2 over a 200-h testing period. BZSc40 electrolytes demonstrated superior performance over BaZr 0.8 Y 0.2 O 3-δ (BZY20). In addition to elevated current densities and grain sizes, BZSc40 cells achieved Faradaic efficiencies of 76 % compared to 54 % for BZY20 at −0.2 A/cm 2 and 600 °C. This work lays the foundation for BZSc40 as a potential electrolyte due to its advantages over BZY20 while demonstrating the significance of controlling NiO diffusion when fabricating p-SOECs.

Electrolyzer↗
DOE OSTI2021

A universal etching method for synthesizing high-performance single crystal cathode materials

LiNi x MnyCo 1-x-y O 2 (NMC) is considered the most appealing cathode material due to its high energy density and low cost. However, the stability and safety concerns, caused by the degradation of polycrystalline cathode materials during cycling, have restricted their practical applications. To overcome this shortcoming, converting polycrystalline cathode to high-performance single-crystal cathode materials becomes an appealing solution. In this work, a universal etching approach is firstly developed to synthesize single-crystal cathode materials. The rate performance of the obtained single-crystal NMC111 is 10–15% more than that of polycrystalline NMC111 whereas the capacity retention of single-crystal NMC111 is enhanced by ~12% after 300 cycles at 0.5C. The obtained single-crystal NMC622 exhibits a pronounced improvement in rate performance, especially at high rates (~28.6% better at 5C and ~129% better at 10C) and has a comparable cycle performance compared to polycrystalline NMC622. Altogether, the findings propose an alternative approach to generate single-crystal particles with high energy density and cycle stability for the next generation lithium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Enhanced thermoelectric performance of PbSe-graphene nanocomposite manufactured with acoustic cavitation induced defects

An order of magnitude rise in the thermoelectric (TE) performance of the PbSe, a scalable and easy-to-manufacture TE material, has been achieved by incorporating reduced graphene oxide (Gr) nanoplatelets in a PbSe/PbSeO 3 heterostructure formed by acoustic cavitation-assisted oxidation. The fabricated Gr/PbSe/PbSeO 3 nanocomposites exhibit high TE performance with an exceptionally high Seebeck coefficient coupled with low thermal conductivity. The variation in the Seebeck coefficient has been attributed to a reduction in charge carrier mobility due to the ferroelectric polarization effect. Furthermore, the increase in electrical resistivity is minimized by adding graphene. At an optimal weight fraction (0.2 wt%), graphene nano-inclusions lead to superior Seebeck coefficient values as high as ~2000 μV/K at ~500 K, providing high overall TE performance. This study shows substantial changes in the TE properties of PbSe through the incorporation of graphene and PbSeO 3 . The understanding and methodology developed in this study can be exploited for the scalable manufacturing of high-performance TE materials.

Structure-property correlations↗
DOE OSTI2020

Strip sensor performance in prototype modules built for ATLAS ITk

ATLAS experiment is preparing an upgrade of its detector for High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) operation. The upgrade involves installation of the new all-silicon Inner Tracker (ITk). In the context of the ITk preparations, more than 80 strip modules were built with prototype barrel sensors. They were tested with electrical readout on a per-channel basis. In general, an excellent performance was observed, consistent with previous ASIC-level and sensor-level tests. However, the lessons learned included two phenomena important for the future phases of the project. First was the need to store and test the modules in a dry environment due to humidity sensitivity of the sensors. The second was an observation of high noise regions for 2 modules. The high noise regions were tested further in several ways, including monitoring the performance as a function of time and bias voltage. Additionally, direct sensor-level tests were performed on the affected channels. The inter-strip resistance and bias resistance tests showed low values, indicating a temporary loss of the inter-strip isolation. A subsequent recovery of the noise performance was observed. Here we present the test details, an analysis of how the inter-strip isolation affects the module noise, and the relationship with sensor-level quality control tests.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2021

An analysis of controlled detachment by seeding various impurity species in high performance scenarios on DIII-D and EAST

Experiments at DIII-D and EAST have demonstrated simultaneous high confinement, divertor detachment, and active control of detachment level, all of which are required for ITER. Comparing detachment control via T e and J sat , it appears that is the most straightforward sensor to use for accessing detachment onset, while J sat offers more precise control of degree of detachment. Based on these results, control using nitrogen seeding has so far shown the best ability to follow a target value with the low disruptivity and little to no degradation of performance when an Internal Transport Barrier (ITB) is present, but not all facilities allow its use. Neon seeding also can be paired with feedback control with low impact on core performance as long as there is no disruption, however shots with neon seeding commonly disrupted during these experiments. Argon is effective in EAST, but tends to degrade performance (by ≈ 10%β p ) when detachment is achieved. With ideal conditions and strike point position control, data from a single Langmuir probe are an acceptable input to the control algorithm, but this simple system is easily defeated by strike point displacement comparable to the T e or J sat scale lengths. The presence of an ITB seems to be critical to retaining core performance in detachment in these parameter ranges, as the pedestal pressure tends to decrease as a result of impurity seeding.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Initial demonstration of automated fuel performance modeling with 1977 EBR-II metallic fuel pins using BISON code with FIPD and IMIS databases

Using the BISON fuel performance code, simulations were conducted using an automated process to read initial and operating conditions from the Fuels Irradiation and Physics Database (FIPD) and Integral Fast Reactor materials information system (IMIS) database, which contains metallic fuel data from the Experimental Breeder Reactor-II (EBR-II). This work demonstrates use of an integrated framework to access the vast majority of EBR-II experimental fuel pin data to support rapid development of fuel performance models for next-generation metallic fuel systems. With this capability, validation for fuel qualification can be performed rapidly. Between IMIS and FIPD, there is enough information to conduct 1977 unique EBR-II metallic fuel pin histories from 24 different experiments, at varying levels of detail between the two databases. Each of these histories includes a high-resolution power history, flux history, coolant channel flow rates, and coolant channel temperatures. Fission gas release (FGR), cumulative damage fraction (CDF), fuel axial swelling, cladding profilometry, and burnup were all simulated in BISON. The results were compared to post-irradiation examination (PIE) results for the initial demonstration of automated BISON modeling. BISON simulations conducted with IMIS and FIPD were in rough agreement with PIE measurements and calculations. Cladding profilometry, FGR, and fuel axial swelling were found to be in rough agreement with PIE measurements, depending on the physics used within the BISON input files. Here, the mechanical contact solver chosen was found to significantly impact axial fuel swelling and cladding strain predictions. CDF values were assessed to see whether pin failure may have been predicted (CDF ≥ 1). This work suggests that continued development of an automated tool for BISON should focus on inclusion of the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF) experimental data for a larger database for metallic fuel, improved physical models to better capture fuel performance, such as fuel-cladding interactions, and a more detailed comparison with available PIE data to further the BISON model development.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2022

BISON fuel performance modeling optimization for experiment X447 and X447A using axial swelling and cladding strain measurements

With the recent need to qualify new reactor designs such as the Versatile Test Reactor (VTR), fuel performance calculations need to be performed to determine safety criteria of the proposed designs. In order to validate the fuel performance results obtained by a fuel performance code, BISON, for new reactor designs, legacy fuel from EBR-II and FFTF MFF with Post -Irradiation Examination (PIE) data need to be used as validation cases to benchmark models. Here in this work, BISON has been paired with the Fuels Irradiation & Physics Database (FIPD) and IFR Materials Information System (IMIS) to supply PIE data for comparison with simulations of EBR-II experiments X447/X447A. X447/X447A were assessed by implementing models for Fuel Cladding Chemical Interaction (FCCI) within BISON and optimizing the friction coefficient between the fuel surface and the cladding, the anisotropic swelling factor, and the HT9 first thermal creep scalar (which scales the first term in the HT9 creep equation) to best match the PIE axial fuel swelling height and cladding profilometry for all pins in X447/X447A. The optimal values were found using a generic algorithm developed to select different values for the three parameters until end criteria was met and error couldn’t be reduced further. The BISON-simulated cladding profilometry was evaluated using Standard Error of the Estimate (SEE) to account for the profile shape of the cladding profilometry. Optimal values for the friction coefficient, anisotropic fuel swelling factor, and HT9 first thermal creep scalar were found to best fit the BISON simulation results to the PIE measurements found in IMIS and FIPD. Improvements to current models are suggested to account for the underprediction of fuel swelling at low burnups and the overprediction of fuel swelling at higher burnups observed for the axial fuel swelling height. Although two pins in EBR-II X447/X447A (DP70 and DP75) were known to fail due to FCCI, none of the pins simulated in BISON reached a cumulative damage fraction (CDF) above 0.008 with FCCI correlations coupled in the BISON simulations. The error estimate generated for all pins in X447/X447A using optimal values was 209 µm, which is deemed acceptable.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Fuel performance evaluation of two high burnup PWR core designs during normal operation, control rod withdrawal, and control rod ejection scenarios

There is interest among utilities to extend the current, 18-month operating cycle to 24 months. Economically, this extension would require greater than 5 % enrichment and peak rod average discharge burnup levels above 62 GWd/MTU. A notable challenge of increasing enrichment is the resulting additional excess reactivity encountered during the early stages of fuel life. To accommodate, burnable absorbers beyond soluble boron are introduced into the fuel system. In high burnup fuels, the possibilities of cladding lift-off and fuel melting increase due, in part, to increased rod internal pressures and limited fuel thermal conductivity, respectively. This work collaboratively employs PARCS, RELAP5-3D, and BISON to compare the fuel performance of two high burnup fuel candidates with higher than 5 % enrichment. Here, the fuel performance parameters were compared to current NRC guidance. The results demonstrate an annular fuel design with homogenously blended gadolinium as a burnable absorber operates with greater safety margins during normal operation, allowing for additional operational flexibility. During normal operation, the core design utilizing Integral Fuel Burnable Absorber pins contained fuel pins which reached plenum pressures above 15.5 MPa by the end of the first fuel cycle and fuel pins experienced cladding hoop strains above 1 %. In the Gd core design, only two observed pins experienced plenum pressures above 15.5 MPa and no pins exceeded 1 % cladding hoop strain. During the control rod withdrawal scenario, plenum pressures for pins in both designs marginally exceeded system pressure, however neither experienced excessive hoop strain. The Gd core design experienced a maximum fuel temperature of 2418 K, which is significantly higher than the Integral Fuel Burnable Absorber design at 2157 K, but still within regulatory guidance. We predicted that the fuel in both could return to service after the CRW event. We also predicted that cladding would not fail during the Control Rod Ejection in either core design. Generally, the Integral Fuel Burnable Absorber core design performed with greater safety margin with regards to temperature during normal operation and the transient events. However, the Gd core design performed with greater safety margin regarding plenum pressure and hoop strain limits during normal operation and both transient events.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Particle size and shape effect of Crumbler® rotary shear-milled granular woody biomass on the performance of Acrison® screw feeder: A computational and experimental investigation

Physical experiments and discrete element model (DEM) simulations are conducted to evaluate particle characteristics and operation parameter effects on screw feeding performance for rotary shear-milled Douglas fir. Three performance metrics are used: mass flow rate, shaft driving torque, and specific energy consumption. The impact of particle size, particle size distribution (PSD), shaft rotational speed (rpm), and hopper dimensions on the performance are investigated. All employed performance metrics reveal the superior flowability of the 2-mm particles in contrast to the larger 6-mm counterpart. Remarkably, wider PSD results in poorer flowability than the two mono-sized particles, proving the flowability enhancement achieved by narrower PSD of the woody feedstock. More importantly, DEM simulations unveil PSD-induced degradation in flowability is attributed to mechanical interlocking and particle segregation effects. Furthermore, higher shaft rpm causes higher mass flow rate at the cost of higher specific energy consumption due to viscous dissipation and changes in flow pattern.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

High performance polymers for oil and gas applications

Proper material selection has been one of the most important aspects in the design of chemical process equipment. In particular, the oil and gas industry has transitioned from using metals to non-metals (e.g. advanced and high performance polymeric materials) in most of their structural components, coatings, equipment parts, and the like. It is therefore imperative to understand the advantages and limitations of these polymer materials before they can be effectively used for a specific application. This review article aims to provide an overview of the properties, applications, and durability against reactivity and degradation of high performance polymers commonly used in the oil and gas industry. These include polysulfone, polyetherimide, polyphenylene sulfide, polyetheretherketone, fluoropolymers, and other high performance thermosets, elastomers, and polymer nanocomposites. Further, this article covers the current research efforts in improving the properties of high performance polymers and expanding their applications (including 3D printing or additive manufacturing) in the oil and gas industry.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗