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At least 1,567 records · Page 87
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Validation of the SCALE/Polaris-PARCS Code Procedure with the ENDF/B-VII.1 AMPX 56-Group Library: Pressurized Water Reactor

This study was conducted to validate the SCALE/Polaris v6.3.0–PARCS v3.4.2 code procedure with the Evaluated Nuclear Data File (ENDF)/B-VII.1 AMPX 56-group library for pressurized water reactor (PWR) analysis, by comparing simulated results with measured data for critical experiments and operating PWRs. Uncertainties of the SCALE/Polaris–PARCS code procedure for PWR analysis were evaluated in the validation for the PWR key nuclear parameters such as critical boron concentrations, reactivity, control bank work, temperature coefficients, and pin and assembly power peaking factors.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2020

New evaluation on angular distributions and energy spectra for neutron-induced charged-particle measurements

Recent development on neutron-induced charged particle reaction measurements can provide high-quality double differential cross sections at Los Alamos Neutron Science Center. With newly measured cross section data, we found lacking nuclear outputs for neutron-induced charged particle reactions in the latest ENDF/B-VIII.0 library, when compared with Monte Carlo simulations. Here, this paper presents how we improved the missing angular distributions and energy spectra for these reactions and the validation of our new evaluations with the measurements performed with the LENZ instrument at LANSCE. The impact of this additional evaluation is demonstrated by comparing the MCNP simulations with the LENZ experimental data.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Probing celestial energy and charge correlations through real-time quantum simulations: Insights from the Schwinger model

Motivated by recent developments in the application of light-ray operators (LROs) in high energy physics, we propose a new strategy to study correlation functions of LROs through real-time quantum simulations. We argue that quantum simulators provide an ideal laboratory to explore the properties LROs in lower-dimensional quantum field theories. This is exemplified in the 1 + 1 -d Schwinger model, employing tensor network methods, focusing on the calculation of energy and charge correlators. Despite some challenges in extracting the necessary correlation functions from the lattice, the methodology used can be extended to real quantum devices. Published by the American Physical Society 2025

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Disordered interfaces of alkaline aluminate salt hydrates provide glimpses of Al 3+ coordination changes

Hypothesis: The precipitation and dissolution of aluminum-bearing mineral phases in aqueous systems often proceed via changes in both aluminum coordination number and connectivity, complicating molecular-scale interpretation of the transformation mechanism. Here, the thermally induced transformation of crystalline sodium aluminum salt hydrate, a phase comprised of monomeric octahedrally coordinated aluminate which is of relevance to industrial aluminum processing, has been studied. Because intermediate aluminum coordination states during melting have not previously been detected, it is hypothesized that the transition to lower coordinated aluminum ions occurs within a highly disordered quasi-two-dimensional phase at the solid-solution interface. Experiments and simulations: In this work, in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman and 27 Al nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy were used to monitor the melting transition of nonasodium aluminate hydrate (NSA, Na 9 [Al(OH) 6 ] 2 ·3(OH)·6H 2 O). A mechanistic interpretation was developed based on complementary classical molecular dynamics (CMD) simulations including enhanced sampling. A reactive forcefield was developed to bridge speciation in the solution and in the solid phase. Findings: In contrast to classical dissolution, aluminum coordination change proceeds through a dynamically stabilized ensemble of intermediate states in a disordered layer at the solid-solution interface. In both melting and dissolution of NSA, octahedral, monomeric aluminum transition through an intermediate of pentahedral coordination. The intermediate dehydroxylates to form tetrahedral aluminate (Al(OH)$_4^–$) in the liquid phase. This coordination change is concomitant with a breaking of the ionic aluminate-sodium ion linkages. The solution phase Al(OH)$_4^–$ ions subsequently polymerize into polynuclear aluminate ions. However, there are some differences between bulk melting and interfacial dissolution, with the onset of the surface-controlled process occurring at a lower temperature (~30 °C) and the coordination change taking place more gradually as a function of temperature. This work to determine the local structure and dynamics of aluminum in the disordered layer provides a new basis to understand mechanisms controlling aluminum phase transformations in highly alkaline solutions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Measurement of the 252 Cf ⁢(sf) prompt fission neutron spectrum utilizing 12 C ⁡(𝑛, 𝑛) and 9 Be ⁢(𝑛, 𝑛) neutron scattering reference measurements

The 252 Cf spontaneous fission (sf), prompt fission neutron spectrum (PFNS) is a fundamental quantity for nuclear physics measurements of neutron-emitting reactions. This energy distribution of neutrons emitted from fission has been considered a neutron data standard for decades and has been utilized as a reference for neutron detection efficiency, validation of Monte Carlo simulations, benchmarking of dosimetry standards, and more. A significant portion of the global collection of nuclear data on neutron-induced reactions is correlated with the 252 Cf ⁢(sf) PFNS. Despite the reliance on this quantity by the nuclear physics community, the historical collection of 252 Cf PFNS measurements display systematic disagreements that are not understood or easily explained. These experimental discrepancies could potentially bias the 252 Cf PFNS Standard evaluation. On top of this, these past experiments frequently employed correlated experimental measurement or analysis methods. The artificial intelligence (AI)/machine learning (ML)-informed californium chi-nuclear data experiment (AIACHNE) project was formed to (a) investigate these discrepancies utilizing AI/ML methods to identify outlying regions of literature data, assign these regions to features of the experiment itself, and perform an improved evaluation of the 252 Cf PFNS and (b) perform a new experimental measurement of this quantity designed to improve upon the existing literature database. Here, in this work, we report on the AIACHNE 252 Cf PFNS experiment utilizing a new analysis method uncorrelated with all previous measurements: neutron efficiency determinations based on elastic neutron scattering on 12 C and 9 Be . This new method provides an independent test of the existing literature data and evaluation of the 252 Cf ⁢(sf) PFNS. The method is described with detailed covariance quantification procedures, as well as a direct discussion of the sources of uncertainty described as requirements in the “Templates” series of papers. The 252 Cf ⁢(sf) PFNS reported in this work agrees well with the overall shape of the existing standard PFNS evaluation as well as many literature measurements, thus verifying the current evaluation utilizing new techniques. However, the results suggest that there are deficiencies in the angle-differential 12 C and 9 Be ⁢(𝑛, 𝑛) evaluated nuclear data, which produce unphysical structures in the reported result. While these structures are relatively minor, they become obvious because of the high statistical precision of the data and the expected smooth continuity of the 252 Cf ⁢(sf) PFNS.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Hot Hydrogen Testing of Uranium Nitride Cermet for Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

This study investigated the thermochemical stability and performance characteristics of uranium mononitride tungsten molybdenum cermet (UN-Mo30W) as a potential fuel material for Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) engines. Twelve monolithic cylinders were subjected to conditions simulating an active NTP engine. The tests demonstrated thermal variability within the test article and highlighted the dissociation of UN into U and N2 at elevated temperatures, affecting the microstructure and causing bonding between cermet wafers and cooling tubes. Findings indicate that while UN-Mo30W cermet exhibits some desirable properties for NTP applications, its suitability is limited by high-temperature thermochemical instability.

nuclear fuels↗
NASA NTRS2008

Gas Core Reactor Numerical Simulation Using a Coupled MHD-MCNP Model

Analysis is provided in this report of using two head-on magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) shocks to achieve supercritical nuclear fission in an axially elongated cylinder filled with UF4 gas as an energy source for deep space missions. The motivation for each aspect of the design is explained and supported by theory and numerical simulations. A subsequent report will provide detail on relevant experimental work to validate the concept. Here the focus is on the theory of and simulations for the proposed gas core reactor conceptual design from the onset of shock generations to the supercritical state achieved when the shocks collide. The MHD model is coupled to a standard nuclear code (MCNP) to observe the neutron flux and fission power attributed to the supercritical state brought about by the shock collisions. Throughout the modeling, realistic parameters are used for the initial ambient gaseous state and currents to ensure a resulting supercritical state upon shock collisions.

Kazeminezhad, F.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Performance Evaluation of Augmented Teleoperation of Contact Manipulation Tasks

At Argonne National Laboratory, an enhanced telerobotic concept has been suggested by providing augmented virtual fixtures for precise and dexterous manipulation. The proposed technology incorporated a human-robot interface that can assist personnel on the processes of Deactivation and Decommissioning in sites of high radiation. It has been implemented on a dual-arm robot system, known as Baxter, by integrating the Robotic Operating System (ROS) with 3D sensors and visual-haptic operator interface. However, what remained before its practical utilization is the capability for precisely placing the virtual fixtures. To this end, the objectives involved camera calibration, which required hardware fabrication and setup, as well as modification and implementation of ROS. The goal of this Research and Development is to develop an augmented-reality- based operator interface for human-inclusive, intelligent, and autonomous robotic system for the Deactivation and Decommissioning (D and D) of radioactive sites. The objectives are to develop: Collaborative Robot; Multi-modal Mixed-Reality Human-Robot Interface; Intelligent and Autonomous Behaviors. In order to achieve this, Baxter's Head-Kinect camera and Left-Hand camera need to be calibrated to overlap the real environment with the simulated environment. Camera calibration, which is crucial for precisely placing the virtual fixtures, was successful after running the simulations. The real and simulated environments overlapped, permitting the utilization of augmented teleoperation and the dexterous manipulation of Baxter for D and D applications in nuclear sites. Future steps: Performance evaluation of augmented teleoperation of contact manipulation tasks: Multiple-Camera 3D Reconstruction and Automation. Oculus Interface: Augmented reality and machine learning for enhanced telerobotic operation (Augmented Tele-autonomy): Machine-learning techniques for complex and flexible autonomous robotic behaviors. Interactive remote operation of robotic systems. Mesh cutting with simulation and real robot.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dynamic data-driven multiscale modeling for predicting the degradation of a 316L stainless steel nuclear cladding material

Here, we have developed a long short-term memory stacked ensemble (LSTM-SE) surrogate modeling approach that can provide rapid predictions of microstructural evolution and the resultant mechanical properties of American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) 316L series stainless steel (316LSS) fuel cladding under conditions of varying temperature and radiation dose rate. To acquire training data, we developed and implemented a kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) model to simulate precipitation kinetics of M 23 C 6 , γ', and G phases within SS316L cladding. Experimentally reported precipitation kinetics of SS316L in literature were linked to the kinetic parameters of the simulated precipitation in our KMC model. The model was then used to simulate microstructure evolution under synthetically generated treatments of varying temperature and radiation dose rate, for periods of up to 3000 hours. Changes in volume fraction, number density, and particle size of precipitates were recorded, and particle area fractions were correlated using statistical methods to develop the surrogate model. Simultaneously, the mechanical properties of the simulated microstructures were evaluated using microstructure-based finite element method (FEM) analysis to determine the elastic modulus, yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation to failure of the aged microstructures. Using this approach, our surrogate model can predict precipitation behavior within 0.25% volume fraction and mechanical properties within 6% relative error from the values predicted by the KMC and FEM models using 50 training simulations as input. The trained recurrent neural network-based model can return estimations of precipitation kinetics and mechanical properties ~1000 times faster than the physics-based codes. This work demonstrates, as a proof of concept, that reactor material service lifetimes under variable service conditions can be predicted for a statistics-based model from a practicably obtainable dataset.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Transient convective delayed neutron precursor of {sup 235}U for the molten salt reactor experiment

This work investigates the delayed neutron precursors from the fission of {sup 235}U in molten salt reactors. The six delayed neutron groups predict the spatial distribution of the advective transport for radioactive mass transfer in the molten-salt reactor experiment (MSRE). The Mole code, using the framework of the Multiphysics Object-Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE), was used to compute the delayed neutron concentration of the whole system. This approach can be used for analysis of reactivity in circulating conditions. The effect of delayed neutron concentrations on the static or dynamic behavior of the system in MSRE was analyzed. Using this approach, the pattern and validation of delayed neutron for a range of parameters of interest are reported and discussed herein. (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Reactor Pressure Vessel Fracture Mechanics Development and Concrete Application Testing for Grizzly

The Grizzly code is being developed to address degradation issues in nuclear reactor structures and components. For light-water reactors, Grizzly currently has capabilities to simulate degradation processes and their effects on structural integrity in two key areas: reactor pressure vessels (RPVs) and reinforced concrete structures. This report documents improvements made to Grizzly’s ability to address both of these structural systems. For RPVs, the reduced-order models (ROMs) used in fracture mechanics calculations have been expanded to allow their application over a broader range of the parameter space than was permitted by the previous models. The ROMs currently used in Grizzly for the evaluation of flaws that are fully embedded within the RPV (as opposed to surface-breaking flaws) are based on a model that is known to be conservative, indicating higher stress intensity factors than would be obtained from direct simulations. A more accurate model that eliminates these excess conservatisms has been recently included in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code but was not applicable for flaws near the RPV surface, which is where the most critical flaws are usually located. That model has recently been extended for increased applicability in this near-surface region. The ROMs for embedded flaws in the Grizzly code have been expanded to include these recent extensions, which permit their use in a much broader set of cases than previously possible. Direct 3D simulations have been used to check these ROMs and have shown good agreement in most cases, although there are still some cases that need further investigation. There are considerable benefits to using these these more accurate and less conservative ROMs for embedded flaws. On a benchmark probabilistic fracture mechanics problem tested here, the conditional probability of fracture initiation computed for a population of flaws in a single plate in an RPV decreased by over a factor of 3. To address aging in reinforced concrete structures, a capability to simulate multiple degradation mechanisms, including alkali-silica reaction and radiation-induced volumetric expansion has been developed in Grizzly over the past several years. This had previously been demonstrated on laboratory-scale specimens but not on full-scale nuclear concrete structures with reinforcement. To demonstrate the applicability of Grizzly to the analysis of large-scale structures of interest, a full 3D model of a representative reinforced concrete structure, including a complex arrangement of reinforcing bars, was developed and demonstrated in Grizzly.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mechanical behavior analysis using small-size graphite disc compression testing with digital image correlation methods

The ASTM International Standard Test Method for Tensile Stress-Strain of Carbon and Graphite (ASTM C749) requires dog-bone shaped specimens. Unfortunately, specimen sizes required in ASTM C749 are much too large for irradiation within a test reactor and are incompatible with irradiation capsule volumes, molten salt degradation facilities, or oxidation apparatus. The ASTM International Standard Test Method for Tensile Strength Estimate by Disc Compression of Manufactured Graphite (ASTM D8289) was developed as an alternative that provides a means for testing tensile properties using smaller specimens when geometric constraints are present. However, the important stress–strain relation throughout the test loading history that could be recorded using ASTM C749 is lost by using ASTM D8289 because of the difficulties involved with using traditional strain gauges or extensometers on such a small specimen. In this work, a digital image correlation (DIC) method, which uses a full-field noncontact surface displacement measurement technique, was applied along with the ASTM D8289 splitting tensile test on eight small samples of graphite grade Mersen 2114 to track their deformation during compressive loading. Initial results showed that the DIC technique can measure the surface displacement/strain on these small (Ø6 × 3 mm) graphite specimens with high accuracy and good repeatability, indicating that the DIC technique, combined with the small-disc splitting tensile test in ASTM D8289, can capture the strain evolution in the test. In conclusion, further comparison of measured strains with analytical and numerical simulation results provides additional understanding of the mechanical behaviour of this nuclear graphite material in complex stress states.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

NMR and Theoretical Study of In-Pore Diffusivity of Ionic Liquid–Solvent Mixtures

We report despite having a lower energy density than common batteries, electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) offer several advantages for high-power applications, including high power density, quick charge and discharge time, and long cycle life. Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) have been intensely studied as promising electrolytes for applications in ELDCs because of their wide potential window, low volatility, as well as thermal and chemical stability. The main deficiency of neat RTILs in such applications is the sluggish diffusivity, which restricts the EDLCs’ power density. To alleviate the slow diffusivity, RTILs can be used in a mixture with organic solvents. In this study, we applied two-dimensional exchange nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (2D EXSY NMR) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to investigate the diffusivity of anions of an RTIL, namely, 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (BMIM + –TFSI – ), dissolved in five different organic solvents, in the micropores of activated carbon. We determined that the relative concentrations of ions in solutions in the micropores were higher than those in the bulk solutions and were also solvent-dependent. The ion diffusivities in the pores were found to be almost 2 orders of magnitude slower than in the bulk solutions, with methanol showing the largest relative disparity. These results suggested that the interactions of solvents with the activated carbon are critical not only to the power density of EDLCs but also to the energy density. The comparisons of ion diffusivities between the experiments and the MD simulations suggest the need to consider also the surface functionalities of activated carbon for the simulation of ion diffusion in the micropores of activated carbon.

electric double layer capacitors↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mechanistic Insights into Processive Polyethylene Hydrogenolysis through In Situ NMR

Chemical polymer upcycling by processive catalysts is a promising plastic waste remediation strategy, with the capability of producing selective, high-value products from waste plastics with minimal energy input. We previously designed a novel processive catalyst with a mesoporous SiO 2 shell/Pt nanoparticle/SiO 2 core architecture (mSiO 2 /Pt/SiO 2 ) that deconstructs polyolefins within narrow pores. Here, in this paper, we elucidate the mechanism of processive polyolefin hydrogenolysis using in situ magic-angle spinning (MAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. We observe that most polyethylene–Pt interactions do not lead to C–C bond cleavage but rather to the release of the polymer via a dehydrogenation–rehydrogenation cycle. The porous architecture increases the likelihood that a released polymer is later cleaved and enables the catalyst to perform multiple successive cleavages to the same polymer chain. Both experiment and simulation show that the extent of processivity is strongly correlated with the length of the pores, with longer pores leading to a higher processivity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Noncanonical folding of peptoid oligomers: Formation of a closed conformation in nonpolar solvent

Peptoids provide a versatile platform for foldamer design, yet their conformational behavior in low-dielectric media remains poorly understood. The structural characteristics of N-1-phenylethylglycine (Nspe) homo-oligomers were inves-tigated in chloroform, a solvent that mimics the interior of lipid bilayers, using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spec-troscopy and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Nspe7 populated two distinct compact conformations, while Nspe10 adopted a single homogeneous conformation related to the previously reported Nspe9 threaded-loop structure. Integrated experimental and computational analysis reveals that these structures are stabilized by cooperative end-to-end intramo-lecular hydrogen bonding, cis-trans backbone isomerism, and hydrophobic side-chain shielding. The resulting structures minimize exposed polar surface area, demonstrating a closed conformation in the low-dielectric environment. These find-ings establish specific chain-length requirements for achieving well-defined closed conformations. This work provides insights into peptoid folding in nonpolar media, enabling rational design strategies for solvent-directed conformational switching systems.

Oh, Jinyoung↗
DOE OSTI2021

Comparing (stochastic-selection) ab initio multiple spawning with trajectory surface hopping for the photodynamics of cyclopropanone, fulvene, and dithiane

Ab Initio Multiple Spawning (AIMS) simulates the excited-state dynamics of molecular systems by representing nuclear wavepackets in a basis of coupled traveling Gaussian functions, called trajectory basis functions (TBFs). New TBFs are spawned when nuclear wavepackets enter regions of strong nonadiabaticity, permitting the description of non-Born–Oppenheimer processes. The spawning algorithm is simultaneously the blessing and the curse of the AIMS method: it allows for an accurate description of the transfer of nuclear amplitude between different electronic states, but it also dramatically increases the computational cost of the AIMS dynamics as all TBFs are coupled. Recently, a strategy coined stochastic-selection AIMS (SSAIMS) was devised to limit the ever-growing number of TBFs and tested on simple molecules. In this work, we use the photodynamics of three different molecules—cyclopropanone, fulvene, and 1,2-dithiane—to investigate (i) the potential of SSAIMS to reproduce reference AIMS results for challenging nonadiabatic dynamics, (ii) the compromise achieved by SSAIMS in obtaining accurate results while using the smallest average number of TBFs as possible, and (iii) the performance of SSAIMS in comparison to the mixed quantum/classical method trajectory surface hopping (TSH)—both in terms of its accuracy and computational cost. We show that SSAIMS can accurately reproduce the AIMS results for the three molecules considered at a much cheaper computational cost, often close to that of TSH. We deduce from these tests that an overlap-based criterion for the stochastic-selection process leads to the best agreement with the reference AIMS dynamics for the smallest average number of TBFs.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Observables for recoil identification in high-definition Gas Time Projection Chambers

Directional detection of nuclear recoils is broadly desirable in nuclear and particle physics. At low recoil energies, this capability may be used to confirm the cosmological origin of a dark matter signal, to penetrate the so-called neutrino floor, or to distinguish between different neutrino sources. Gas Time Projection Chambers (TPCs) can enable directional recoil detection if the readout granularity is sufficiently high, as is the case when micro-pattern gaseous detectors (MPGDs) are utilized. A key challenge in such detectors is identifying and rejecting background electron recoil events caused by gamma rays from radioactive contaminants in the detector materials and the environment. We define new observables that can distinguish electron and nuclear recoils, even at keV-scale energies, based on the simulated ionization's topology. Here we perform a simulation study that shows these observables outperform the traditionally used discriminant, dE/dx, by up to three orders of magnitude. Furthermore, these new observables work well even at ionization energies well below 10keV and remain robust even in the regime where directionality fails.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

The advanced tokamak path to a compact net electric fusion pilot plant

Abstract Physics-based simulations project a compact net electric fusion pilot plant with a nuclear testing mission is possible at modest scale based on the advanced tokamak concept, and identify key parameters for its optimization. These utilize a new integrated 1.5D core-edge approach for whole device modeling to predict performance by self-consistently applying transport, pedestal and current drive models to converge fully non-inductive stationary solutions, predicting profiles and energy confinement for a given density. This physics-based approach leads to new insights and understanding of reactor optimization. In particular, the levering role of high plasma density is identified, which raises fusion performance and self-driven ‘bootstrap currents’, to reduce current drive demands and enable high pressure with net electricity at a compact scale. Solutions at 6–7 T, ∼4 m radius and 200 MW net electricity are identified with margins and trade-offs possible between parameters. Current drive comes from neutral beam and ultra-high harmonic (helicon) fast wave, though other advanced approaches are not ruled out. The resulting low recirculating power in a double null configuration leads to a divertor heat flux challenge that is comparable to ITER, though reactor solutions may require more dissipation. Strong H-mode access (x2 margin over L–H transition scalings) and ITER-like heat fluxes are maintained with ∼20%–60% core radiation, though effects on confinement need further analysis. Neutron wall loadings appear tolerable. The approach would benefit from high temperature superconductors, as higher fields would increase performance margins while potential for demountability may facilitate nuclear testing. However, solutions are possible with conventional superconductors. An advanced load sharing and reactive bucking approach in the device centerpost region provides improved mechanical stress handling. The prospect of an affordable test device which could close the loop on net-electric production and conduct essential nuclear materials and breeding research is compelling, motivating research to validate the techniques and models employed here.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗