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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,567 records · Page 87
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

A Novel Low-Cost Method of Manufacturing Nb3Sn Superconductors with Multiple-Tin-Tube Sources (CRADA FRA-2008-0001 Final Report)

In order to successfully sustain a fusion reaction, peak magnetic fields on the order of 12-13 Tesla will be required. Magnetic fields of this magnitude can only be accomplished by advanced superconductors such as Nb3Sn. However, the economic success of a fusion machine will depend on further improvements in the cost-performance of the Nb3Sn conductor. This project will develop a novel, low-cost, multiple-tin-tube process as a new manufacturing approach for large-scale Nb3Sn-conductor production. The process will be suitable for the efficient production of larger strands (0.83 mm), consistent with ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) specifications. In Phase I, Cu/Nb composites were manufactured and shaped into sub-elements. These sub-elements were tin-coated by electroplating, assembled into a precise-fit restack billet tube, and drawn to 0.83 mm diameter. In Phase II, the process will be scaled-up to full production levels. The improved Nb3Sn conductor should have an immediate benefit for high-field magnet applications. A prototype fusion machine, based on a cost effective Nb3Sn conductor, would have enormous economic and social benefits. In addition, the conductor should be applicable to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), which has requirements for use in chemical research, biochemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry, polymer science, petroleum research, agricultural chemistry, and medicine. Leszek Motowidlo, Principal Investigator, will be responsible for the overall coordination of the effort. He and others of SupraMagnetics staff will design and fabricate protoype PIT Nb3Sn conductors for evaluation at Fermilab. Emanuela Barzi will be responsible for the Fermilab subcontract and will coordinate and supervise critical current testing Nb3Sn strands and cable fabrication and evaluation.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
NASA NTRS1986

Biomedical support of man in space

The effects of G and/or exercise on cardiopulmonary adjustments to stresses are studied. The control of the cardiopulmonary system is examined using simulated microgravity (recumbency, immersion, lower body positive pressure, and 6-deg head-down tilt) and increased acceleration. It is observed that at rest and during exercise in simulated zero-6 environments, the stroke volume and cardiac output are initially increased and then (after prolonged exposure) return to prezero-G levels. Cardiovascular responses to increased gravity (1, 2, and 3 G) at rest and during exercise are analyzed; a decrease in plasma volume resulting in decreases in stroke volume and cardiac output, and an increase in heart rate are detected.

Pendergast, D. R.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Differences in Otolith and Abdominal Viscera Graviceptor Dynamics: Implications for Motion Sickness and Perceived Body Position

Human graviceptors, located in the trunk by Mittelstaedt probably transduce acceleration by abdominal viscera motion. As demonstrated previously in biodynamic vibration and impact tolerance research the thoraco-abdominal viscera exhibit a resonance at 4 to 6 Hz. Behavioral observations and mechanical models of otolith graviceptor response indicate a phase shift increasing with frequency between 0.01 and O.5 Hz. Consequently the potential exists for intermodality sensory conflict between vestibular and visceral graviceptor signals at least at the mechanical receptor level. The frequency range of this potential conflict corresponds with the primary frequency range for motion sickness incidence in transportation, in subjects rotated about Earth-horizontal axes (barbecue spit stimulation) and in periodic parabolic flight microgravity research and also for erroneous perception of vertical oscillations in helicopters. We discuss the implications of this hypothesis for previous self motion perception research and suggestions for various future studies.

vonGierke, Henning E.↗
NASA NTRS2007

Hypovolemia Induced Orthostatic Hypotension in Presyncopal Astronauts and Normal Subjects Relates to Hypo-Sympathetic Responsiveness

Circulating blood volume is reduced during spaceflight, leaving astronauts hemodynamically compromised after landing. Because of this hypovolemia, crew members are able to withstand a postflight 10 minute upright tilt test only if they are able to mount a hyper-sympathetic response. Previous work from this laboratory has shown that about 30% of astronauts, primarily female, have postflight sympathetic responses to tilt that are equal to or less than their preflight responses and thus, they become presyncopal. Part of the mission of the cardiovascular lab at the Johnson Space Center is to identify susceptible crewmembers before flight so that individualized countermeasures can be prescribed. The goal of this study was to develop a ground based model of hypovolemia that could be used for this purpose We tested the hypothesis that hypovolemia alone, in the absence of spaceflight, would reproduce the landing day rate of presyncope during upright tilt in normal volunteers. Further, we hypothesized that, during hypovolemia, subjects who had sympathetic responses that were equal to or less than their normovolemic responses would become presyncopal during upright tilt tests. We studied 20 subjects, 13 male and 7 female, on two separate occasions: during normovolemia and hypovolemia. We induced hypovolemia with intravenous furosemide 40 hours prior to the experiment day, followed by a 10MEq Na diet. On the normovolemia and hypovolemia test days, plasma volume, tilt tolerance and supine and standing arterial pressure, heart rate and plasma norepinephrine levels were measured. A two factor, repeated measures analysis of variance was performed to examine the differences between group (presyncopal vs. non-presyncopal) and day (normovolemia vs. hypovolemia) effects. There were no differences in baseline arterial pressure between normovolemia and hypovolemia or between presyncopal and non-presyncopal groups, but heart rates were higher with hypovolemia in both groups (presyncopal: 70 5 bpm vs. 63 3 bpm, P = 0.003, non-presyncopal: 59 2 bpm vs. 52 2 bpm, P = 0.003). Similar to patterns reported after flight, non-presyncopal subjects had greater norepinephrine responses to tilt during hypovolemia compared to normovolemia (580 79 vs. 298 37 pg/ml, P < 0.05), but presyncopal subjects did not (180 44 vs. 145 32 pg/ml, P = NS). This new model has the potential to accelerate the development of countermeasures and save flight resources. It can be used to identify astronauts who will become presyncopal on landing day, so that prospective, individualized countermeasures can be developed. In addition, it can also be used to screen candidate countermeasures prior to requests for bed rest or inflight resources.

Meck, Janice V.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Constraints on LISA Pathfinder's Self-Gravity: Design Requirements, Estimates and Testing Procedures

LISA Pathfinder satellite was launched on 3 December 2015 toward the Sun Earth first Lagrangian point (L1) where the LISA Technology Package (LTP), which is the main science payload, will be tested. LTP achieves measurements of differential acceleration of free-falling test masses (TMs) with sensitivity below 3 x 10(exp -14) m s(exp -2) Hz(exp - 1/2) within the 130 mHz frequency band in one dimension. The spacecraft itself is responsible for the dominant differential gravitational field acting on the two TMs. Such a force interaction could contribute a significant amount of noise and thus threaten the achievement of the targeted free-fall level. We prevented this by balancing the gravitational forces to the sub nm s(exp -2) level, guided by a protocol based on measurements of the position and the mass of all parts that constitute the satellite, via finite element calculation tool estimates. In this paper, we will introduce the gravitational balance requirements and design, and then discuss our predictions for the balance that will be achieved in flight.

Armano, M.↗
NASA NTRS2018

Finite Element Simulations of Two Vertical Drop Tests of F-28 Fuselage Sections

In March 2017, a vertical drop test of a forward fuselage section of a Fokker F-28 MK4000 aircraft was conducted as part of a joint NASA/FAA project to investigate the performance of transport aircraft under realistic crash conditions. In June 2017, a vertical drop test was conducted of a wing-box fuselage section of the same aircraft. Both sections were configured with two rows of aircraft seats, in a triple-double configuration. A total of ten Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) were secured in seats using standard lap belt restraints. The forward fuselage section was also configured with luggage in the cargo hold. Both sections were outfitted with two hat racks, each with added ballast mass. The drop tests were performed at the Landing and Impact Research facility located at NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The measured impact velocity for the forward fuselage section was 346.8-in/s onto soil. The wing-box section was dropped with a downward facing pitch angle onto a sloping soil surface in order to create an induced forward acceleration in the airframe. The vertical impact velocity of the wing-box section was 349.2-in/s. A second objective of this project was to assess the capabilities of finite element simulations to predict the test responses. Finite element models of both fuselage sections were developed for execution in LS-DYNA(Registered Trademark), a commercial explicit nonlinear transient dynamic code. The models contained accurate representations of the airframe structure, the hat racks and hat rack masses, the floor and seat tracks, the luggage in the cargo hold for the forward section, and the detailed under-floor structure in the wing-box section. Initially, concentrated masses were used to represent the inertial properties of the seats, restraints, and ATD occupants. However, later simulations were performed that included finite element representations of the seats, restraints, and ATD occupants. These models were developed to more accurately replicate the seat loading of the floor and to enable prediction of occupant impact responses. Models were executed to generate analytical predictions of airframe responses, which were compared with test data to validate the model. Comparisons of predicted and experimental structural deformation and failures were made. Finally, predicted and experimental soil deformation and crater depths were also compared for both drop test configurations.

Jackson, Karen E.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Vestibulo-Spinal Pathways in Tetrapods: Chapter - 6.26

The vestibulospinal system provides the spinal motor circuits controlling head/neck and limb movements and body posture with rapid reflex adjustments to maintain equilibrium and stability and with a continuous essential excitatory drive, called tonus, to enhance reactive responses to perturbations that force the animal off normal posture. The sensory signals to these reflex circuits originate from hair cells in the inner ear of otolith structures, namely the utricle and saccule, that transduce inertial acceleration and orientation of the head with respect to gravity and in the three orthogonally arranged semicircular canals that transduce angular head rotation. The principal vestibulospinal pathways are 1) the medial vestibulospinal tract that descends in the ventromedial funiculus and innervates inter- and motoneurons located mainly in lamina VII, VIII, and dorsomedial IX throughout the cervical segments; and 2) the lateral vestibulospinal tracts that course in the lateral to ventrolateral funiculi and are distinguished by two divisions: i) a cervical-projecting tract that overlaps many of the targets of medial vestibulospinal tract neurons including the motoneurons in ventromedial IX and also contributes to reflex control of shoulder and forelimb (arm) muscles; and ii) a lumbosacral-projecting tract that provides a rapid input to maintain stable posture and reflex control of the lower body. A striking observation in understanding the functional organization of this sensory-motor system is both that the driving sensory input can be dynamically modified by the behavioral context in which the sensation is made and that it remains able to quickly respond to an external force during self-generated head movements. The structural basis for vestibulospinal inputs to spinal motor control circuits in quadrupeds and bipeds rely in part on the animal's need for coordination between fore- and hind-limb reflex movements. Understanding the sensory-to-motor transformations in the diverse species rely on the correlations of the conserved and unique species behavior, morphology and physiologic function.

Spinal Cord↗
DOE OSTI2023

First Results From Nanoindentation of Vapor Diffused Nb3Sn Films on Nb

The mechanical vulnerability of the Nb3Sn-coated cavities is identified as one of the significant technical hurdles toward deploying them in practical accelerator applications in the not-so-distant future. It is crucial to characterize the material's mechanical properties in ways to address such vulnerability. Nanoindentation is a widely used technique for measuring the mechanical properties of thin films that involves indenting the film with a small diamond tip and measuring the force-displacement response to calculate the film's elastic modulus, hardness, and other mechanical properties. The nanoindentation analysis was performed on multiple vapor-diffused Nb3Sn samples coated at Jefferson Lab and Fermilab coating facilities for the first time. This contribution will discuss the first results obtained from the nanoindentation of Nb3Sn-coated Nb samples prepared via the Sn vapor diffusion technique.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
NASA NTRS1996

Cerebrovascular Responses During Lower Body Negative Pressure-Induced Presyncope

Reduced orthostatic tolerance is commonly observed after space flight, occasionally causing presyncopal conditions. Although the cerebrovascular system may play an important role in presyncope, there have been few reports concerning cerebral hemodynamics during presyncope. The purpose of this study was to investigate cerebrovascular responses during presyncope induced by lower body negative pressure (LBNP). Seven healthy male volunteers were exposed to LBNP in steps of -10 mmHg every 3 min until presyncopal symptoms were detected. Blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) were measured with a finger cuff. Cerebral tissue oxy- and deoxy- hemoglobin (Hb) concentrations were estimated using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Cerebral blood flow (CBF) velocity at the middle cerebral artery was measured with Transcranial Doppler Sonography (TCD). We focused on the data during the 2 min before endpoint. BP marked a gradual decrease (91 to 86 mmHg from 2 min to 30 sec before endpoint), which was accelerated along with HR decrease during the final 30 sec (86 to 71 mmHg). Cerebral oxy-Hb concentration decreases as presyncope is approached while total-Hb concentration remains fairly constant. TCD reveals a decrease in the CBF velocity. The TCD and NIRS results suggest that CBF decreases along with the BP decrease. Cerebrovascular responses during presyncope are closely related to cardiovascular responses.

Kuriyama, Kana↗
NASA NTRS1995

Inertial acceleration as a measure of linear vection: An alternative to magnitude estimation

The present study focused on the development of a procedure to assess perceived self-motion induced by visual surround motion - vection. Using an apparatus that permitted independent control of visual and inertial stimuli, prone observers were translated along their head x-axis (fore/aft). The observers' task was to report the direction of self-motion during passive forward and backward translations of their bodies coupled with exposure to various visual surround conditions. The proportion of 'forward' responses was used to calculate each observer's point of subjective equality (PSE) for each surround condition. The results showed that the moving visual stimulus produced a significant shift in the PSE when data from the moving surround condition were compared with the stationary surround and no-vision condition. Further, the results indicated that vection increased monotonically with surround velocities between 4 and 40/s. It was concluded that linear vection can be measured in terms of changes in the amplitude of whole-body inertial acceleration required to elicit equivalent numbers of 'forward' and 'backward' self-motion reports.

Carpenter-Smith, Theodore R.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Critical transverse compressive stresses of straight and bent CORC® wires with and without impregnation

CORC® wires are a promising superconductor for accelerator magnet applications. While their excellent uniaxial tensile properties have been well established, potential degradation under transverse compression remains a concern for accelerator magnets, in which transverse compression is a primary stress experienced by superconductors. To evaluate the critical transverse compressive stresses of rare-earth barium copper oxide conductors, we developed an experimental system that enables testing of samples both with and without impregnation in liquid nitrogen. Furthermore, because bending strain induced during coil winding may influence the critical compressive response of CORC® wires, the apparatus was also modified to allow testing under the bending condition. In this study wires were tested for five configurations: (1) straight, non-impregnated, (2) bent, non-impregnated, (3) straight, Stycast 2850 FT-impregnated, (4) bent, Stycast 2850 FT-impregnated, and (5) bent, paraffin wax-impregnated. The transverse pressures corresponding to 3% and 5% reductions in the critical current are reported. In conclusion, the effects of wire bending and impregnation on the critical transverse pressure are analyzed, and the implications for transverse stress levels in accelerator magnet conductors are discussed.

CORC® wire↗
NASA NTRS2017

Development of a Continuum Damage Mechanics Material Model of a Graphite-Kevlar(Registered Trademark) Hybrid Fabric for Simulating the Impact Response of Energy Absorbing Kevlar(Registered Trademark) Hybrid Fabric for Simulating the Impact Response of Energy Absorbing

This paper describes the development of input properties for a continuum damage mechanics based material model, Mat 58, within LS-DYNA(Registered Trademark) to simulate the response of a graphite-Kevlar(Registered Trademark) hybrid plain weave fabric. A limited set of material characterization tests were performed on the hybrid graphite-Kevlar(Registered Trademark) fabric. Simple finite element models were executed in LS-DYNA(Registered Trademark) to simulate the material characterization tests and to verify the Mat 58 material model. Once verified, the Mat 58 model was used in finite element models of two composite energy absorbers: a conical-shaped design, designated the "conusoid," fabricated of four layers of hybrid graphite-Kevlar(Registered Trademark) fabric; and, a sinusoidal-shaped foam sandwich design, designated the "sinusoid," fabricated of the same hybrid fabric face sheets with a foam core. Dynamic crush tests were performed on components of the two energy absorbers, which were designed to limit average vertical accelerations to 25- to 40-g, to minimize peak crush loads, and to generate relatively long crush stroke values under dynamic loading conditions. Finite element models of the two energy absorbers utilized the Mat 58 model that had been verified through material characterization testing. Excellent predictions of the dynamic crushing response were obtained.

Jackson, Karen E.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhancing actuation control in monolithic liquid crystal elastomer films with dual heat and light responsiveness

This study presents a dual heat and light-responsive monolithic liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) film designed to enhance actuation control. The LCE films were capable of various motion types, including curvature reversal, oscillation, and sustainable flipping. By incorporating an azobenzene compound, the films exhibited additional functionalities such as enhanced curvature reversal, accelerated oscillation, and the ability to lock continuous flipping motion upon light stimulation. Furthermore, by adjusting the aspect ratio (AR) of a single film, different thermal motion states were realized, demonstrating the flexibility of this approach. Observations using an NIR camera confirmed temperature fluctuations corresponding to thermal exchange, and the influence of UV light on motion regulation was quantitatively analyzed. In conclusion, the ability to regulate motion through dual stimuli paves the way for improved dynamic motion control and thermal management in advanced robotic applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRS2016

Prompt Acceleration of Magnetospheric Electrons to Ultrarelativistic Energies by the 17 March 2015 Interplanetary Shock

Trapped electrons in Earth's outer Van Allen radiation belt are influenced profoundly by solar phenomena such as high-speed solar wind streams, coronal mass ejections (CME), and interplanetary (IP) shocks. In particular, strong IP shocks compress the magnetosphere suddenly and result in rapid energization of electrons within minutes. It is believed that the electric fields induced by the rapid change in the geomagnetic field are responsible for the energization. During the latter part of March 2015, a CME impact led to the most powerful geomagnetic storm (minimum Dst = −223 nT at 17 March, 23 UT) observed not only during the Van Allen Probe era but also the entire preceding decade. Magnetospheric response in the outer radiation belt eventually resulted in elevated levels of energized electrons. The CME itself was preceded by a strong IP shock whose immediate effects vis-a-vis electron energization were observed by sensors on board the Van Allen Probes. The comprehensive and high-quality data from the Van Allen Probes enable the determination of the location of the electron injection, timescales, and spectral aspects of the energized electrons. The observations clearly show that ultrarelativistic electrons with energies E greater than 6 MeV were injected deep into the magnetosphere at L approximately equals 3 within about 2 min of the shock impact. However, electrons in the energy range of approximately equals 250 keV to approximately equals 900 keV showed no immediate response to the IP shock. Electric and magnetic fields resulting from the shock-driven compression complete the comprehensive set of observations that provide a full description of the near-instantaneous electron energization.

radiation belts↗
NASA NTRS1993

Compressibility effects on rotor forces in the leakage path between a shrouded pump impeller and its housing

A modified approach to Childs' previous work on fluid-structure interaction forces in the leakage path between an impeller shroud and its housing is presented in this paper. Three governing equations consisting of continuity, path-momentum, and circumferential-momentum equations were developed to describe the leakage path inside a pump impeller. Radial displacement perturbations were used to solve for radial and circumferential force coefficients. In addition, impeller-discharge pressure disturbances were used to obtain pressure oscillation responses due to precessing impeller pressure wave pattern. Childs' model was modified from an incompressible model to a compressible barotropic-fluid model (the density of the working fluid is a function of the pressure and a constant temperature only). Results obtained from this model yielded interaction forces for radial and circumferential force coefficients. Radial and circumferential forces define reaction forces within the impeller leakage path. An acoustic model for the same leakage path was also developed. The convective, Coriolis, and centrifugal acceleration terms are removed from the compressible model to obtain the acoustics model. A solution due to impeller discharge pressure disturbances model was also developed for the compressible and acoustics models. The results from these modifications are used to determine what effects additional perturbation terms in the compressible model have on the acoustic model. The results show that the additional fluid mechanics terms in the compressible model cause resonances (peaks) in the force coefficient response curves. However, these peaks only occurred at high values of inlet circumferential velocity ratios greater than 0.7. The peak pressure oscillation was shown to occur at the wearing ring seal. Introduction of impeller discharge disturbances with n = 11 diametral nodes showed that maximum peak pressure oscillations occurred at nondimensional precession frequencies of f = 6.4 and f = 7.8 for this particular pump. Bolleter's results suggest that for peak pressure oscillations to occur at the wearing ring seal, the nondimensional excitation frequency should be on the order of f = 2.182 for n = 11. The resonances found in this research do not match the excitation frequencies predicted by Bolleter. At the predicted peak excitation frequencies given by Bolleter, the compressible model shows an attenuation of the pressure oscillations at the seal exit. The compressibility of the fluid does not have a significant influence on the model at low values of nondimensional excitation frequency. At high values of nondimensional frequency, the effects of compressibility become more significant. For the acoustic analysis, the convective, Coriolis, and centrifugal acceleration terms do affect the results to a limited extent for precession excitation and to a large extent for a pressure excitation when the fluid operates at relatively high Mach numbers.

Cao, Nhai The↗
DOE OSTI2021

The High Luminosity LHC interaction region magnets towards series production

The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) is the new flagship project of CERN. First endorsed in 2013 and approved in 2016, HL-LHC is an upgrade of the accelerator aiming to increase by a factor of ten the statistics of the LHC collisions at the horizon of 2035-2040. HL-LHC relies on cutting edge technologies: among them, large aperture superconducting magnets will replace the present hardware to allow a smaller beam size in two interaction points (IPs). The project involves the construction of about 150 magnets of six different types: the quadrupole triplet, two main dipoles and three orbit correctors. The triplet, manufactured at CERN and in the USA, will consist of 30 magnets based on Nb3Sn technology, with an operational peak field of 11.4 T. These will be the first quadrupole Nb3Sn magnets installed in a particle accelerator. The other five types of magnets, all relying on Nb-Ti technology, present non-trivial challenges in the design and construction; they will be manufactured as part of in-kind contribution under the responsibility of institutes in Japan, China, Spain, and Italy. The project is now in the phase of transition between qualification through short models and prototypes and the beginning of the series construction. In this paper we review the magnet requirements, the reasons for selecting the design, the technological challenges with respect to previous projects, and we summarize the steps that have been taken to validate the baseline.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2022

Lifelong cytomegalovirus and early‐LIFE irradiation synergistically potentiate age‐related defects in response to vaccination and infection

Abstract While whole‐body irradiation (WBI) can induce some hallmarks of immune aging, (re)activation of persistent microbial infection also occurs following WBI and may contribute to immune effects of WBI over the lifespan. To test this hypothesis in a model relevant to human immune aging, we examined separate and joint effects of lifelong latent murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) and of early‐life WBI over the course of the lifespan. In late life, we then measured the response to a West Nile virus (WNV) live attenuated vaccine, and lethal WNV challenge subsequent to vaccination. We recently published that a single dose of non‐lethal WBI in youth, on its own, was not sufficient to accelerate aging of the murine immune system, despite widespread DNA damage and repopulation stress in hematopoietic cells. However, 4Gy sub‐lethal WBI caused manifest reactivation of MCMV. Following vaccination and challenge with WNV in the old age, MCMV‐infected animals experiencing 4Gy, but not lower, dose of sub‐lethal WBI in youth had reduced survival. By contrast, old irradiated mice lacking MCMV and MCMV‐infected, but not irradiated, mice were both protected to the same high level as the old non‐irradiated, uninfected controls. Analysis of the quality and quantity of anti‐WNV immunity showed that higher mortality in MCMV‐positive WBI mice correlated with increased levels of MCMV‐specific immune activation during WNV challenge. Moreover, we demonstrate that infection, including that by WNV, led to MCMV reactivation. Our data suggest that MCMV reactivation may be an important determinant of increased late‐life mortality following early‐life irradiation and late‐life acute infection.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Clean Grid Vision: A U.S. Perspective - Chapter 4. Demand-Side Development

This chapter focuses on recent developments on the demand side of the electricity system in the United States and beyond. After decades of slow-moving change in power system technology, business models, regulatory structures, and even financing schemes, changes on the demand side are accelerating rapidly. These changes are also more tightly linking the supply side with the demand side. This chapter provides high-level summaries of traditional subjects like demand-side management, which includes energy efficiency and demand response, and then transition to a subject that has gathered increasing attention as the most dynamic change likely to impact power systems in the coming decades: beneficial electrification. In each case, we attempt to address the impacts on system flexibility to the degree possible. These demand-side subjects are widely considered essential elements of a clean grid strategy.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗