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NASA NTRS1998

Real Time Land-Surface Hydrologic Modeling Over Continental US

The land surface component of the hydrological cycle is fundamental to the overall functioning of the atmospheric and climate processes. Spatially and temporally variable rainfall and available energy, combined with land surface heterogeneity cause complex variations in all processes related to surface hydrology. The characterization of the spatial and temporal variability of water and energy cycles are critical to improve our understanding of land surface-atmosphere interaction and the impact of land surface processes on climate extremes. Because the accurate knowledge of these processes and their variability is important for climate predictions, most Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) centers have incorporated land surface schemes in their models. However, errors in the NWP forcing accumulate in the surface and energy stores, leading to incorrect surface water and energy partitioning and related processes. This has motivated the NWP to impose ad hoc corrections to the land surface states to prevent this drift. A proposed methodology is to develop Land Data Assimilation schemes (LDAS), which are uncoupled models forced with observations, and not affected by NWP forcing biases. The proposed research is being implemented as a real time operation using an existing Surface Vegetation Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (SVATS) model at a 40 km degree resolution across the United States to evaluate these critical science questions. The model will be forced with real time output from numerical prediction models, satellite data, and radar precipitation measurements. Model parameters will be derived from the existing GIS vegetation and soil coverages. The model results will be aggregated to various scales to assess water and energy balances and these will be validated with various in-situ observations.

Houser, Paul R.↗

NASA NTRS2007

Improvements to GOES Twilight Cloud Detection over the ARM SGP

The current ARM satellite cloud products derived from Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) data provide continuous coverage of many cloud properties over the ARM Southern Great Plains domain. However, discontinuities occur during daylight near the terminator, a time period referred to here as twilight. This poster presentation will demonstrate the improvements in cloud detection provided by the improved cloud mask algorithm as well as validation of retrieved cloud properties using surface observations from the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Southern Great Plains (ARM SGP) site.

Yost, c. R.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Characterization of the Morphometry of Impact Craters Hosting Polar Deposits in Mercury's North Polar Region

Earth-based radar images dating back two decades show that the floors of some polar craters on Mercury host radar-bright deposits that have been proposed to consist of frozen volatiles. Several hypotheses have been put forth to explain their source, including volcanic outgassing, chemical sputtering, and deposition of exogenous water ice. Calculations show that volatiles are thermally stable in permanently shadowed areas. An earlier study of the depths of north polar craters determined with photoclinometric techniques applied to Mariner 10 images yielded the conclusion that the mean ratio of crater depth d to rim-crest diameter D for craters hosting polar deposits is two-thirds that of the mean ratio for a comparable population of neighboring craters lacking such deposits. This result could be explained by (though doesn't require) the presence of a thick layer of volatiles within the polar deposit-hosting craters. Here we use altimetric profiles and topographic maps obtained by the Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA) to revisit this analysis. MLA is an instrument on the MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) spacecraft, which has been orbiting Mercury since March 2011. MLA transmits a 1064-nm laser pulse at 8 Hz during MESSENGER's trajectory over Mercury s surface. The MLA illuminates surface areas averaging between 15 m and 100 m in diameter, spaced approx 400 m apart along the spacecraft ground track. The radial precision of individual measurements is <1 m, and the current accuracy with respect to Mercury s center of mass is better than 20 m. As of mid-December 2011, MLA coverage had reached to 15 S and has yielded a comprehensive map of the topography of Mercury s northern hemisphere. The MLA data are used here to quantify the shapes of craters in the north polar region and to avoid the shadowing bias of photoclinometric techniques.

Talpe, Matthieu, J.↗

NASA NTRS2022

Science Goals and New Mission Concepts for Future Exploration of Titan’s Atmosphere, Geology and Habitability: Titan POlar Scout/orbitEr and in Situ Lake Lander and DrONe Explorer (POSEIDON)

In response to ESA’s “Voyage 2050” announcement of opportunity, we propose an ambitious L-class mission to explore one of the most exciting bodies in the Solar System, Saturn’s largest moon Titan. Titan, a “world with two oceans”, is an organic-rich body with interior-surface-atmosphere interactions that are comparable in complexity to the Earth. Titan is also one of the few places in the Solar System with habitability potential. Titan’s remarkable nature was only partly revealed by the Cassini-Huygens mission and still holds mysteries requiring a complete exploration using a variety of vehicles and instruments. The proposed mission concept POSEI-DON (Titan POlar Scout/orbitEr and In situ lake lander DrONe explorer) would perform joint orbital and in situ investigations of Titan. It is designed to build on and exceed the scope and scientific/technological accomplishments of Cassini-Huygens, exploring Titan in ways that were not previously possible, in particular through full close-up and in situ coverage over long periods of time. In the proposed mission architecture, POSEIDON consists of two major elements: a spacecraft with a large set of instruments that would orbit Titan, preferably in a low-eccentricity polar orbit, and a suite of in situ investigation components, i.e. a lake lander, a “heavy” drone (possibly amphibious) and/or a fleet of mini-drones, dedicated to the exploration of the polar regions. The ideal arrival time at Titan would be slightly before the next northern Spring equinox (2039), as equinoxes are the most active periods to moni-tor still largely unknown atmospheric and surface seasonal changes. The exploration of Titan’s northern latitudes with an orbiter and in situ element(s) would be highly complementary in terms of timing (with possible mission timing overlap), locations, and science goals with the upcoming NASA New Frontiers Dragonfly mission that will provide in situ exploration of Titan’s equatorial regions, in the mid-2030s.

Sebastien Rodriguez↗

DOE OSTI2024

Characterizing model uncertainties in simulated coast-to-offshore wind over the northeast U.S. using multi-platform measurements from the TCAP field campaign

Numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, such as the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, are widely used to provide estimates of the offshore wind energy resource owing to their large spatial coverage compared to available observations. Nevertheless, spatiotemporal distribution of model biases is highly dependent on factors including model configuration, location, and the interplay of multi-scale physical processes. Here, in this study, we focus on the characterization of model uncertainties in simulated coast-to-offshore winds over the northeast U.S., by varying sea surface temperature (SST) forcings, surface layer (SL) and planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameterizations, as well as identifying biases that may be directly passed from initial and boundary conditions. Multiple measurements, including aircraft data collected during the U.S. Department of Energy's Two-Column Aerosol Project (TCAP) experiment, are used to constrain the model results and facilitate quantitative comparisons. Our analysis indicates while SST forcing has notable impacts on simulated air temperature and moisture within PBL, the modeled winds are in general more sensitive to the choices of SL and PBL physics than to SST. The model’s forcing data not only controls the vertical dependence of wind speed errors, but also alters regional variability in wind speed’s spatial correlation. Bias comparisons between ERA5 reanalysis and ensemble simulations revealed significant similarity, particularly in wind speed biases during winter, underscoring their dependency on initial and boundary conditions. Coastal and offshore near-surface wind speed biases tend to exhibit much higher similarity in winter than in summer due to the presence of much stronger and more persistent synoptic wind conditions. This study highlights the importance of accurate atmospheric forcing and parameterization choices in improving wind forecasts and suggests the potential for extrapolating coastal wind biases to offshore locations, aiding wind energy forecasting and informing the Wind Forecast Improvement Project-3 (WFIP3).

17 WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Combining Force Fields and Neural Networks for an Accurate Representation of Chemically Diverse Molecular Interactions

A key goal of molecular modeling is the accurate reproduction of the true quantum mechanical potential energy of arbitrary molecular ensembles with a tractable classical approximation. The challenges are that analytical expressions found in general purpose force fields struggle to faithfully represent the intermolecular quantum potential energy surface at close distances and in strong interaction regimes; that the more accurate neural network approximations do not capture crucial physics concepts, e.g., nonadditive inductive contributions and application of electric fields; and that the ultra-accurate narrowly targeted models have difficulty generalizing to the entire chemical space. We therefore designed a hybrid wide-coverage intermolecular interaction model consisting of an analytically polarizable force field combined with a short-range neural network correction for the total intermolecular interaction energy. Here, we describe the methodology and apply the model to accurately determine the properties of water, the free energy of solvation of neutral and charged molecules, and the binding free energy of ligands to proteins. The correction is subtyped for distinct chemical species to match the underlying force field, to segment and reduce the amount of quantum training data, and to increase accuracy and computational speed. For the systems considered, the hybrid ab initio parametrized Hamiltonian reproduces the two-body dimer quantum mechanics (QM) energies to within 0.03 kcal/mol and the nonadditive many-molecule contributions to within 2%. Simulations of molecular systems using this interaction model run at speeds of several nanoseconds per day.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2019

Emergent Relationships Among Sea Ice, Longwave Radiation, and the Beaufort High Circulation Exposed Through Parameter Uncertainty Analysis

Using a perturbed parameter ensemble of a coupled climate model, emerging relationships are identified between sea ice area, net surface longwave radiation, and the atmospheric circulation over the Beaufort gyre. There is a strong positive correlation between sea ice area and the net longwave radiation over the ocean-ice surface during the melting season and a negative correlation during the freezing season. The mechanisms responsible for the longwave radiation balance at the surface are mainly driven by sea ice variations in the freezing season and by clouds in the melting season. A strong positive (negative) correlation is also found between the fall (summer) total sea ice area in the Arctic and the sea level pressure over the Beaufort High region. It is argued that as sea ice coverage is lost, static stability losses are severe in fall, resulting in enhanced evaporation, vertical motions, and weakening of the general large-scale anticyclonic circulation of the Beaufort High.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Quantifying Flood Frequency Associated with Clustered Mesoscale Convective Systems in the United States

Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) that are clustered in time and space can have a broader impact on flooding because they have larger area coverage than that of individual MCSs. The goal of this study is to understand the flood likelihood associated with MCS clusters. To achieve this, floods in the Storm Events Database in April–August of 2007–17 are matched with clustered MCSs identified from a high-resolution MCS dataset and terrestrial conditions in a land surface dataset over the central-eastern United States. In this work, our analysis indicates that clustered MCSs preferentially occurring in April–June are more effective at producing floods, which also last longer due to the greater rainfall per area and wetter initial soil conditions and, hence, produce greater runoff per area than nonclustered MCSs. Similar increases of flood occurrence with cluster-total rainfall size and wetter soils are also observed for each MCS cluster, especially for the overlapping rainfall areas within each cluster. These areas receive rainfall from multiple MCSs that progressively wet the soils and are therefore associated with higher flood likelihood. This study underscores the importance to understand clustered MCSs to better understand flood risks and their future changes.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1973

Principal sources and dispersal patterns of suspended particulate matter in nearshore surface waters of the northeast Pacific Ocean and seasonal variation in snow cover in the Sierra Nevada

The author has identified the following significant results. ERTS-1 imagery used in conjunction with the surface-drift cards indicated a southerly flow direction of the central California near surface coastal currents during mid-June 1973. The near-surface currents off northern California and southern Oregon were more complex. Some drift cards were recovered north and some south of their release points; however, the prevalent direction of flow was northerly. General agreement in flow direction of coastal currents obtained from ERTS-1 imagery and drift card data reinforces the image interpretation. Complete seasonal coverage of nearshore circulation interpreted from ERTS-1 imagery will provide information necessary for proper coastal zone management. Extent of snow cover can be readily delimited on ERTS-1 band 5. In the central Sierra Nevada Mountains this past winter season, the snow line, as recorded by ERTS-1, reached an elevation of less than 1500 meters in January but had melted back to between 2500 and 3000 meters by the end of May. ERTS-1 imagery seems to provide sufficient resolution to make it a useful tool for monitoring changes in snow cover in the Sierra Nevada Mountains.

Carlson, P. R.↗

NASA NTRS1980

The enhanced oxidation of SO2 by NO2 on carbon particulates

The oxidation of SO2 on carbon particles in dry air and in air at 65% relative humidity (RH) was found to be greatly enhanced by the presence of gaseous NO2. Exposures of 20-80ppm SO2 + 10ppm NO2 on 1-mg samples of commercial carbon black were found to produce both sorption and desorption coverages (weight retained after desorption into N2) of over one order of magnitude greater than for corresponding SO2 exposures. Significant agglomeration and wetting were observed to occur progressively during exposures at 65% RH, and samples, even after 150-h exposure, rarely reached steady-state weight gain. The wetting may have regenerated fresh reactive carbon surface. Sorptions conducted in nitrogen atmospheres, rather than in air, appeared to produce slightly higher sorptions and weight retentions for equivalent exposure concentrations and times, indicating that NO2 served as the oxidizer and that molecular oxygen, or some trace constitutents in air, may have weakly inhibited the oxidation by NO2. Wet chemical analysis of the desorbed phase indicated that sulfate, presumably H2SO4 accounted for over half of the retained weight. Measurements of pH from water-quenched samples indicated a highly acidic surface phase, and suggested the oxidation process could proceed in an acidic environment.

Cofer, W. R., III↗

NASA NTRS1991

Geostationary Meteorological Satellite-5 (GMS-5)

The Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS-5), which is being developed by the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), is the fifth geostationary, spin stabilized, weather satellite. Its purposes are to observe cataclysmic events such as hurricanes, typhoons, and regional weather phenomena; to relay meteorological data from surface collection points to the Data Processing Center in Japan; and to transmit processing imaging data for facsimile reproduction. The satellite will be launched from the Tanegashima Space Center (TaSC) in Japan by a type H-II launch vehicle. The Deep Space Network (DSN) will support the transfer and drift orbit mission phases. The coverage will consist of the 26-m antennas as prime and the 34-m antenna at Madrid as backup support for launch through drift orbit. Maximum support will consist of two 8-hour tracks per station for a seven day period, plus 23 days of contingency support from all complexes. Information is given in tabular form for DSN support, frequency assignments, telemetry, command and tracking station responsibility.

Horii, M.↗

NASA NTRS2006

A Coupled GCM-Cloud Resolving Modeling System to Study Precipitation Processes

Recent GEWEX Cloud System Study (GCSS) model comparison projects have indicated that cloud resolving models (CRMs) agree with observations better than traditional single column models in simulating various types of clouds and cloud systems from different geographic locations. Current and future NASA satellite programs can provide cloud, precipitation, aerosol and other data at very fine spatial and temporal scales. It requires a coupled global circulation model (GCM) and cloud-scale model (termed a super-parameterization or multi-scale modeling framework, MMF) to use these satellite data to improve the understanding of the physical processes that are responsible for the variation in global and regional climate and hydrological systems. The use of a GCM will enable global coverage and the use of a CRM will allow for better and more sophisticated physical parameterization. NASA Satellite and field campaign cloud related data sets can provide initial conditions as well as validation for both the MMF and CRMs. Also we have implemented a Land Information System (LIS that includes the CLM and NOAH land surface models into the MMF. The Goddard MMF is based on the 2D Goddard Cumulus Ensemble (GCE) model and the Goddard finite volume general circulation model (fvGCM) This modeling system has been applied and tested its performance for two different climate scenarios, El Nino (1998) and La Nina (1999). The coupled new modeling system produced more realistic propagation and intensity of tropical rainfall systems and intraseasonal oscillations, and diurnal variation of precipitation that are very difficult to forecast using even the state-of-the-art GCMs. In this talk I will present: (1) a brief review on GCE model and its applications on precipitation processes (both Microphysical and land processes) and (2) The Goddard MMF and the Major difference between two existing MMFs (CSU MMF and Goddard MMF) and preliminary results (the comparison with traditional GCMs).

Tao, Wei-Kuo↗

DOE OSTI2023

Ectomycorrhizal effects on decomposition are highly dependent on fungal traits, climate, and litter properties: A model-based assessment. Dataset.

To simulate the effects of mycorrhizal fungi on soil organic matter cycling, we incorporated mycorrhizal processes into the Carbon, Organisms, Rhizosphere, and Protection in the Soil Environment (CORPSE) model to develop a new soil model Myco-CORPSE. The new model was calibrated and evaluated against soil measurements taken at temperate forests in New Hampshire (NH) and Georgia (GA). A series of scenario analysis were also conducted to explore the conditions under which ectomycorrhizal (ECM) N acquisition processes can induce different soil C accumulation in ECM systems compared to arbuscular (AM) systems.In this data package, we included:-The Python codes of the standard Myco-CORPSE model we developed: "Standard Myco_CORPSE python codes.zip". The main program is the "gradient_sim.py" which calculates the bulk soil microbes and CN content along a user defined gradient of clay, soil temperature, soil moisture and mycorrhizal dominance, and relies on two subprograms "CORPSE_deriv.py" and "CORPSE_integrate.py". "CORPSE_deriv.py" calculated the changes in all simulated soil stock within every time step and "CORPSE_integrate.py" integrate the changes in all simulated soil stock within simulated time period. The program "Plot.py" is used to plot the major outputs produced by the main program "gradient_sim.py".-The modified Python codes of Myco-CORPSE models with site-level environmental inputs (in NH and GA) used to conduct simulations in NH and GA sites: "NH_GA model simulations.zip". -The Python codes used to evaluate the Myco-CORPSE simulation outputs in NH and GA sites against site-level measurements: "Plot NH_GA simulation against measurements.zip". It includes both the evaluation Python code, the model outputs on NH and GA sites, and the measured soil properties in both sites.-The modified Python codes of Myco-CORPSE models "Scenario analysis_model simulations.zip" that is used to conduct scenario analysis of how different litter properties, mycorrhizal fungal traits, climate, and seasonal variation in temperature and vegetation phenology impact the mycorrhizal effects on soil CN properties. The sub file folder "Scenario analysis_litter traits" contains the codes for scenario analysis of different litter properties; The sub file folder "Scenario analysis_ECM types" contains the codes for scenario analysis of different ECM fungal traits; The sub file folder "Scenario analysis_climate&seasonality" contains the codes for scenario analysis of different climate and seasonalities;-"Scenario analysis_model results and plotting codes.zip" contains all the output files from the the scenario analysis of Myco-CORPSE model as described above and the plotting codes used to the generate the heatmaps and scatterplots shown in the manuscript "Ectomycorrhizal effects on decomposition are highly dependent on fungal traits, climate, and litter properties: A model-based assessment"The majority of the model outputs did not have specific geographic information or temporal coverage because the analysis we conducted are mainly hypothetical model simulations. We only provided geographic description, coordinates and temporal coverage for those soil measurements which we used for model evaluations (included in the "Plot NH_GA simulation against measurements.zip").

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

An ML-based terrestrial data fusion and augmentation framework to enable advanced understanding of the terrestrial carbon and water interactions

Soil moisture is essential to the terrestrial carbon and water cycles and land–atmosphere interactions. There are various types of soil moisture data, and each type has the distinct spatiotemporal strengths and limitations, depending on the diverse applications and retrieval methodologies of different data types (Li et al., in review; The PNNL-82151 FY23 Report). However, the limitations of different soil moisture data in terms of accuracy and spatiotemporal coverage hinder our ability to further understand the soil moisture dynamics across scales. To have a gap free soil moisture data product with a fine spatiotemporal coverage and vertical profiles, we train extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) models by using (1) in-situ soil moisture measurements from the International Soil Moisture Network (ISMN), (2) soil moisture from the ECMWF reanalysis (ERA) at the 9 km and sub-daily spatiotemporal resolution, (3) the Daymet meteorological fields, and (4) data products that characterize surface conditions, including soil texture, organic content, topography, vegetation type, and rooting depth. We use the trained XGBoost models that have consistent performance across seven soil layers, i.e., 0–5 cm, 5–10 cm, 10–20 cm, 20–40 cm, 40–60 cm, 60–100 cm, and 100–200 cm, and the gridded model predictors to generate a soil moisture data at the 1 km and daily spatiotemporal resolution for the Continental United States (CONUS) from 2001–2020. This dataset can be broadly used for Earth system model benchmark, monitoring extreme weathers, making informed decisions regarding agriculture, water resource management, climate change mitigation, and ecosystem preservation.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1989

MAMS - A high spatial resolution multispectral scanner

The Multispectral Atmospheric Mapping Sensor (MAMS) is an airborne scanner which collects imagery in eight visible and three IR bands, with ground resolution of 100 m at a nominal aircraft altitude of 20 km. The visible channels provide continuous spectral coverage from 0.42 to 1.05 microns, and the IR channels measure upwelling and reflected radiation at combinations of 3.7, 6.5, 11.1, and 12.5 microns. These include channels nearly identical to the Landsat TM channels 1-4, and similar to those on the VISSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) and AVHRR instruments. The high spatial resolution permits investigation of surface thermal and atmospheric water vapor structure at scales not available from current stabilities. Significant modifications have been made since engineering flights in 1985 to improve the radiometric performance. The increased data quality and recent multidisciplinary applications of this data are presented.

Atkinson, Robert J.↗

NASA NTRS1990

The effect of Sr and Bi on the Si(100) surface oxidation - Auger electron spectroscopy, low energy electron diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study

The effect of Sr and Bi on the oxidation of the Si(100) surface has been studied by Auger electron spectroscopy, low electron diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. A dramatic enhancement, by a factor of 10, of the Si oxidation has been observed for Si(100) with a Sr overlayer. The SR-enhanced Si oxidation has been studied as a function of O2 exposure and Sr coverage. In contrast to the oxidation promotion of Sr on Si, it has been also observed that a Bi overlayer on Si(100) reduced Si oxidation significantly. Sr adsorption on the Si(100) with a Bi overlayer enhances Si oxidation only at Sr coverage of greater than 0.3 ML.

Fan, W. C.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Variable stars in the Leo A dwarf galaxy (DDO 69)

Observations of the Leo A dwarf galaxy, obtained over the period from 1980 to 1991 are reported. Forty two separate Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) frames were searched for variable stars. A total of 14 suspected variables were found, 9 had sufficient coverage for period determination, and 5 had Cepheid light curves. Four of these stars fit well on a P-L relation and yield a distance modulus, after correction for Galactic foreground extinction, of m-M = 26.74. This corresponds to a distance of 2.2 Mpc, placing Leo A near the Local Group zero-velocity surface.

Hoessel, John G.↗

NASA NTRS1996

Astrophysical Adaptation of Points, the Precision Optical Interferometer in Space

POINTS (Precision Optical INTerferometer in Space) would perform microarcsecond optical astrometric measurements from space, yielding submicroarcsecond astrometric results from the mission. It comprises a pair of independent Michelson stellar interferometers and a laser metrology system that measures both the critical starlight paths and the angle between the baselines. The instrument has two baselines of 2 m, each with two subapertures of 35 cm; by articulating the angle between the baselines, it observes targets separated by 87 to 93 deg. POINTS does global astrometry, i.e., it measures widely separated targets, which yields closure calibration, numerous bright reference stars, and absolute parallax. Simplicity, stability, and the mitigation of systematic error are the central design themes. The instrument has only three moving-part mechanisms, and only one of these must move with sub-milliradian precision; the other two can tolerate a precision of several tenths of a degree. Optical surfaces preceding the beamsplitter or its fold flat are interferometrically critical; on each side of the interferometer, there are only three such. Thus, light loss and wavefront distortion are minimized. POINTS represents a minimalistic design developed ab initio for space. Since it is intended for astrometry, and therefore does not require the u-v-plane coverage of an imaging, instrument, each interferometer need have only two subapertures. The design relies on articulation of the angle between the interferometers and body pointing to select targets; the observations are restricted to the 'instrument plane.' That plane, which is fixed in the pointed instrument, is defined by the sensitive direction for the two interferometers. Thus, there is no need for siderostats and moving delay lines, which would have added many precision mechanisms with rolling and sliding parts that would be required to function throughout the mission. Further, there is no need for a third interferometer, as is required when out-of-plane observations are made. An instrument for astrometry, unlike those for imaging, can be compact and yet scientifically productive. The POINTS instrument is compact and therefore requires no deployment of precision structures, has no low-frequency (i.e., under 100 Hz) vibration modes, and is relatively easy to control thermally. Because of its small size and mass, it is easily and quickly repointed between observations. Further, because of the low mass, it can be economically launched into high Earth orbit which, in conjunction with a solar shield, yields nearly unrestricted sky coverage and a stable thermal environment.

Reasenberg, Robert D.↗