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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Subtask 2.6 – Optimization of Aerosol Mitigation Technology for Postcombustion CO 2 Capture

Growing concerns over the impact of CO 2 emissions from combustion sources on global climate change have prompted numerous research and development projects aimed at developing cost-effective technologies for CO 2 capture. One family of technologies being demonstrated at pilot and full scale globally is postcombustion CO 2 capture (PCCC) systems that employ amine-based solvents. The captured CO 2 can be compressed and permanently stored underground or used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The proximity of North Dakota’s lignite-fired fleet of power plants to potential CO 2 storage options creates a unique atmosphere for PCCC within the state. However, the aerosols present in lignite flue gas present a challenge for large-scale PCCC at North Dakota power plants. Aerosols can negatively impact the long-term performance of amine-based solvents for CO 2 capture. Amine-based solvents are volatile, and aerosols provide nucleation sites where amine vapors can condense. Because aerosols cannot be easily captured at the column outlet using conventional technologies, the amine-laden aerosols escape the system and lead to accelerated solvent losses. Moreover, aerosol components can chemically react with amines to form degradation products that can permanently deactivate the amine, cause fouling, and lead to hazardous emissions. Many of the elements that have been shown to catalyze solvent degradation are present in lignite coals and can exacerbate solvent replacement economics. Understanding this issue is critical to the implementation of solvent-based CO 2 capture systems as applied to lignite-fired generation systems. The Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC) designed and carried out this project to optimize aerosol mitigation technology for PCCC at a lignite-fired power plant. To meet the goal of this project, the following objectives were identified: Determine the effectiveness of a wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP) on collection of aerosols at a low-rank coal-fired power station. Determine the impact of aerosols on the efficiency and degradation products of amine-based carbon capture systems fired with low-rank fuels. Work was conducted at Minnkota Power Cooperative’s (MPC’s) Milton R. Young (MRY) Station Unit 2 using a slipstream of flue gas from the outlet of the plant’s flue gas desulfurization (FGD) unit. To gather initial data for sizing and specifying a WESP for this system, a temporary pilot-scale WESP was rented and installed on-site. Several different conditions were tested to examine the impact of flow rate, voltage, and current on WESP performance. The WESP was effective at removing large particulate (>200 nm) but caused an increase in fine particulate (<75 nm). Fine particulate material at the inlet and outlet of the WESP was collected, analyzed, and showed that crystalline sulfates carried over from the plant’s FGD unit were being converted to fine aerosols and SO 2 was being converted to SO 3 through the WESP. Additionally, the high moisture content of the flue gas stream at this sample location also contributed to an overall increase in aerosol mass under some of the test conditions. Using the results from the rented WESP, the project team installed a smaller-scale WESP upstream of the EERC’s slipstream CO 2 capture system. Flue gas was routed through a pilot-scale FGD unit to remove SO 2 to very low levels (~1 ppm) and then through a direct contact cooler (DCC) to further cool the gas and to remove moisture. The gas exiting the DCC was then routed through the new WESP before passing to the CO 2 absorber columns. Fluor’s amine-based solvent was used to scrub CO 2 from the slipstream through a set of two absorber columns. The rich solvent was regenerated in a stripper column by heating to drive off captured CO 2 . The system operated using a catch-and-release method where the CO 2 was separated to provide data on the process, but the captured CO 2 was released back into the host site stack. Aerosols and sulfur species were measured at multiple locations throughout the pilot-scale system. The inlet FGD and DCC removed much of the particulate matter and gaseous sulfur upstream of the WESP. With this configuration, the WESP achieved >95% particulate capture. The new WESP did not show any of the increases in SO 3 or other aerosol species that had been consistently observed with the larger-scale WESP installed immediately downstream of the plant’s full-scale FGD unit. Particulate samples captured and analyzed from the WESP inlet did not show any presence of crystalline sulfate materials, indicating that the pilot-scale FGD and DCC were efficient at reducing carryover from the plant’s full-scale FGD unit. A set of parametric tests were conducted on the new WESP to assess the impacts of flow rate, voltage, number of online WESP fields, and gas-phase sulfur content on aerosol and sulfur transformations. The results showed that the WESP performed similarly well at all sets of conditions. Sulfur and particulate matter exiting the WESP were further reduced through the absorber column as the amine-based solvent captured some of the residual contaminants. Solvent analysis showed that these species were slowly concentrating in the solvent over the duration of the test. When the WESP was taken offline and the sulfur slip through the FGD allowed to rise, the sulfate content in the solvent rose sharply, showing that the extra FGD and WESP were effective at reducing sulfate and cation uptake. This would be expected to extend amine-based solvent life by slowing the formation of heat-stable salts and other degradation products. This subtask was cofunded through the EERC–U.S. Department of Energy Joint Program on Research and Development for Fossil Energy-Related Resources Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FE0024233. Nonfederal funding was provided by the North Dakota Industrial Commission and MPC.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2023

Conjugate Heat Transfer Analysis in Pressurized Helium Gas Cooling Channels

Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) is working with NorthStar Medical Radioisotopes (NMR) on their efforts to produce Mo-99 from the irradiation of Mo-100 targets. The NMR target consists of an Inconel window that allows the electron beam to penetrate and irradiate a stack of Mo-100 disks. The irradiation process generates large amounts of heat and is cooled using pressurized helium gas flowing at 400 g/s. LANL provides both numerical analysis support and experimental support. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and conjugate heat transfer (CHT) analysis are performed on the NMR target to analyze the helium flow and volumetric heating through the NMR system. In this iteration of numerical analysis, we update the Mo-100 disk thickness to 0.74 mm and the gap between the Inconel window and the first disk to 0.69 mm. Estimates of the heat flux from the electron beams from Monte Carlo N-Particle code (MCNP) analysis were combined with CFD to perform the CHT analysis. The pressure drop through the targets, force applied on the first disk, beam window and target disk temperatures are some of the quantities estimated using the simulations. The pressure drop through the target was estimated as 0.198 MPa, while the force due to venturi effects across the first disk was estimated to be 100 N. The results show maximum window temperatures over 600 °C and peak disk temperatures over 1600 °C. Past work has shown that beyond 650-700 °C, the Inconel window becomes susceptible to yield and rupture. The increased temperature in these results reduces the margin of error possible on beam spot size. The disk temperatures showed a sinusoidal distribution with the 6 th – 8 th disk from each window exhibiting highest disk temperatures. The peak temperature of the stainless steel housing was close to 316 °C and that of the laminations and spacers was approximately 582 °C.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Improved Performance of Cu(InGa)(SeS) 2 PV Modules Using the Reaction of Metal Precursors. Final Report

This project “Improved Performance of Cu(InGa)(SeS) 2 PV Modules using the Reaction of Metal Precursors” was a partnership led by the Institute of Energy Conversion (IEC) at the University of Delaware with Columbia University and the Molecular Foundry at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The aim was to develop pathways to improve Cu(InGa)(SeS) 2 (CIGSS) thin film photovoltaic modules using processes compatible with low manufacturing cost. The CIGSS approach investigated was a two-step process including deposition of metal precursor films following by reaction in hydride gases utilizing IEC’s novel reactor. The process was similar to that under commercial development by the project’s industry partner Stion. When Stion went out of business mid-project the focus changed to a rapid thermal process considered more commercially viable. Approaches to improve the performance of solar cells using the reacted films focused on two material innovations. First, the overall Ga content was increased to increase the operating voltage, which is desirable for scale-up to commercial modules. Second, the processing and performance advantages arising from Ag alloying were investigated. Advanced characterization guided process and material development including control of relative composition gradients. Research on the formation of Cu-Ga-In metal precursors utilized sputtering deposition which is normally used in commercial applications. The work resulted in processes for deposition of precursor stacks with increased relative Ga content and effects of deposition parameters on morphology and phase composition were established. It was shown that the metal precursor films have comparable phase composition and morphology so subsequent reaction follows from the same starting point. The addition of Ag to the metal precursors gave more uniform morphology and improved adhesion of reacted films which enable higher reaction temperature for faster processing. A novel outcome was the discovery of a previously undocumented material phase in sputter-deposited and evaporated Ag-Cu-In-Ga thin films. Hydride gas reaction processes including time-temperature-concentration profiles were developed for different precursor compositions. This enables control of composition profiles to engineer through-film gradients for solar cell optimization with characterization and simulations used to correlate measured film composition profiles to measurements of devices. In particular, the gradient of sulfur at the front of the CIGSS film was found to be critical. The simulations guided process development leading to improved reproducibility of devices improved performance with higher Ga content and higher voltage. With Ag-alloyed precursors, the reaction pathways leading were determined. A significant finding was that Ag-alloying increases the reaction rate to completely convert precursor films to the final chalcopyrite which could enable reduced reaction time to benefit manufacturability. To maintain potential commercial viability, the process under investigation was refocused to a rapid thermal process that could potentially be incorporated into an in-line process for manufacturing. Precursors with different composition were capped with an extra selenium layer and reacted in hydrogen sulfide 5-15 minutes, compared to typically 2 hours in the previous multi-step batch process. Critical RTP parameters were identified to control the reaction. Further optimization would be needed for high efficiency solar cells but pathways to high quality devices with further optimization and improved heating uniformity were developed. The project also developed new optoelectronic characterization approaches with a focus on development and application of spatial- and time-resolved photoluminescence and a custom mapping photoluminescence microscope built. It was shown how critical electronic transport properties strongly depend on the chemical composition of the material and that a wide range of samples show inhomogeneity on a length scale larger than the grains in the films. Additionally, two-photon excitation capability was developed to distinguish bulk vs surface losses. The project advances the state-of-the -art for precursor reaction processes in several ways that could impact manufacturing. This includes validation of approaches to increase voltage and establishment of model-guided control to form optimal composition profiles. The application of process control approaches with knowledge of phase formation and reaction pathways can be critically valuable in designing a large-scale process.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Public Reference Data for Megawatt-Scale Hydrogen Electrolysis - Simulated Marine Hydrokinetic Tidal Turbine

The U.S. Department of Energy and National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR) demonstrate hydrogen electrolysis, hydrogen compression and storage, and variable hydrogen fuel cell power production using megawatt-scale equipment at NLR’s Flatirons Campus as part of the Advanced Research on Integrated Energy Systems (ARIES) initiative. This dataset is part of that effort and is intended for academic, national laboratory, industrial, and other stakeholders to plan, design, and validate models of megawatt-scale hydrogen technologies and diverse energy infrastructure. These data provide a baseline for how existing hydrogen electrolysis technologies perform when coupled with other energy technologies. This dataset contains inputs and outputs from simulations of a floating marine hydrokinetic turbine over approximately half a tidal cycle (~6.6 hours). Inflow conditions were derived from field measurements in Alaska’s Cook Inlet and represent a tidal environment in which the current speed ramps from near 0 m/s to a peak of 3 m/s and back. The original acoustic doppler current profiler dataset is publicly available on the Marine and Hydrokinetic Data Repository. In a full tidal cycle, the flow reverses and the rotor would reorient; this reversal was not modeled. In the Cook Inlet campaign , turbulence intensity was similar in both directions. Two inflow cases are included. In the first case, labeled “raw” in the files, the measured current time series was used directly in the InflowWind module of OpenFAST. Speed and direction were applied as a function of time and elevation, uniformly in the horizontal direction. With full spatial coherence, this approach captures high turbulent variability and results in pronounced power fluctuations, so it is considered a conservative, near-worst-case representation of loading. In the second case, labeled “average” in the files, a 30-minute moving average was applied to extract the slowly varying mean speed. The residual fluctuations about this mean were used to generate spatially varying, full-field turbulence inputs with TurbSim, giving a more physically realistic representation of the inflow across the rotor disk. Two random realizations were used to produce distinct inflow conditions for two OpenFAST simulations representing a two-turbine array. The same turbulence intensity is applied across the full time series, producing larger fluctuations at the start and end, where the mean speed is low. The second case is the more appropriate framework for performance and power assessment but overpredicts turbulence at lower flow speeds and underpredicts it at higher speeds. As the floating platform moves and the rotor changes its x-position, Taylor’s frozen turbulence hypothesis used by InflowWind assumes a constant rather than a time-varying mean velocity, introducing some inaccuracy in the velocity plane sampling. The turbine modeled is the 500-kW Reference Model 1, a horizontal-axis two-bladed hydrokinetic turbine on a four-column floating semisubmersible substructure . Simulations were performed using OpenFAST v4.1 with the Reference Open Source Controller (ROSCO) v2.10. All input files required to reproduce the simulations are included. The electrolyzer is a 1.25-MW proton exchange membrane type MC250 system manufactured by Nel . This unit supports up to 2.5 MW, but NLR has only a single 1.25-MW stack. The datasets report hydrogen balance-of-plant and system data, all captured at 1 Hz, including hydrogen mass production measured with an Emerson Coriolis flow meter. The system controls hydrogen production by varying direct current applied to the stack, from a maximum of 3,000 A to a minimum safe operating current of 300 A, or 10%. Because the current–voltage characteristic changes as the stack ages and efficiency degrades, the actual minimum safe operating power changes over time. The simulated tidal turbine time series data was translated from power (kilowatts) to current (amperes) using a curve fit with calibration data and sent to the electrolyzer power supply at 1-Hz. Each zip file represents a single tidal electrolysis experiment and is named: {technology}_{inflow method}_{number of 500 kW tidal turbines connected} For instance, “tidal-500kW-RM1_average_2.zip” is a 6-hour experiment using the 500-kW tidal reference model, scaled by 2x (1-MW) to better match the electrolyzer maximum of 1.25MW, fed with the 30-minute moving average current case. Each zip folder contains the following files: A .csv file of raw data. An .xlsx file explaining all the fields in the raw data. A .png plot showing the time series of hydrogen production in kilograms per hour, electrolysis power consumption, and input wave power. A .csv file combines all tidal profiles as "combined_tidal_experiments.csv." A separate experiment, “characterization_200.zip,” shows the MC250 electrolyzer steady-state response with 30-minute load steps over 5 hours and is accessible with this entry.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Roadmap for Photonics with 2D Materials

Triggered by advances in atomic-layer exfoliation and growth techniques, along with the identification of a wide range of extraordinary physical properties in self-standing films consisting of one or a few atomic layers, two-dimensional (2D) materials such as graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), and other van der Waals (vdW) crystals now constitute a broad research field expanding in multiple directions through the combination of layer stacking and twisting, nanofabrication, surface-science methods, and integration into nanostructured environments. Photonics encompasses a multidisciplinary subset of those directions, where 2D materials contribute remarkable nonlinearities, long-lived and ultraconfined polaritons, strong excitons, topological and chiral effects, susceptibility to external stimuli, accessibility, robustness, and a completely new range of photonic materials based on layer stacking, gating, and the formation of moiré patterns. These properties are being leveraged to develop applications in electro-optical modulation, light emission and detection, imaging and metasurfaces, integrated optics, sensing, and quantum physics across a broad spectral range extending from the far-infrared to the ultraviolet, as well as enabling hybridization with spin and momentum textures of electronic band structures and magnetic degrees of freedom. The rapid expansion of photonics with 2D materials as a dynamic research arena is yielding breakthroughs, which this Roadmap summarizes while identifying challenges and opportunities for future goals and how to meet them through a wide collection of topical sections prepared by leading practitioners.

2D materials↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Mapping Organic-Mineral Associations in Jezero crater

The search for potential signs of life on Mars, a primary aim of the Mars 2020 mission, is greatly informed by the detection of organic matter1. The presence of organic matter also provides key information about the habitability and biological potential of the planet throughout its history. The Perseverance rover was designed for in situ science with the ability to collect a suite of promising samples for eventual return to Earth. One of its instruments, Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC), is a deep ultraviolet (DUV) Raman and fluorescence spectrometer designed to map the distribution of organic molecules and minerals on rock surfaces at a resolution of 100 μm2. With its unique spectral mapping capabilities, SHERLOC enables a novel understanding of organic-mineral relationships on Mars to better determine their formation, deposition, and preservation mechanisms. The rover’s landing site within Jezero crater combines a high potential for past habitability as the site of an ancient lake basin with a diverse set of minerals, including carbonates and clays, that may preserve organic materials and potential biosignatures. The Jezero crater floor includes three formations (fm); two of these, Máaz and Séítah, were explored as part of the mission’s first campaign. Here, we report the detection of multiple species of aromatic organic molecules using Raman and fluorescence spectroscopy across ten targets in the two formations. This is the first evidence of organic molecules in Martian materials obtained using Raman spectroscopy, and among the first using fluorescence spectroscopy, beyond Earth3. We report specific spatial patterns and classes of organic molecules in these compositionally distinct formations, potentially indicating different fates of carbon in these environments. Our findings indicate that there is a diversity of aromatic molecules prevalent on the Martian surface and these materials persist despite exposure to surface conditions. These organic molecules are largely found within minerals linked to aqueous processes, suggesting that these processes may have had a key role in organic synthesis, transport from their point of origin, or preservation.

Sunanda Sharma↗
DOE OSTI2023

Flow Induced Vibration Studies in Pressurized Helium Gas Cooling Channels

Production of metastable Technetium-99 (Tc-99m), a radioactive tracer that emits gamma rays, is vital to the medical imaging community. Tc-99m is extracted from the decay of Molybdenum-99 (Mo-99) which has a half-life of about 2-3 days. The work presented in this report is part of the NNSA’s mission to produce Mo-99 commercially, within the US, without the use of highly enriched uranium (HEU) in support of nonproliferation and global security. Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) is working with NorthStar Medical Radioisotopes (NMR) on their efforts to produce Mo-99 through the irradiation of Mo-100 targets using an electron beam. The NMR target comprises a stack of approximately 60-70 Mo-100 disks with diameter 24 mm and thickness 0.74 mm held in stainless steel laminations, each separated using 0.25 mm thick stainless steel spacers. The symmetric target stack is housed in an Inconel vessel with two Inconel windows on either side. Two electron accelerators are used to produce 40 MeV, 3.16 µA electron beams each that penetrate the Inconel windows and irradiate the Mo-100 disks. Approximately 90% of the total 250 kW beam power is deposited in the NMR target during the irradiation process. During irradiation, pressurized helium gas flows through 0.25 mm thin gaps between the disks cooling the beam window, target disks, disk laminations and spacers. Both NMR and LANL have found during cold testing of the target system (no heat deposition) that the Mo-100 disks undergo significant mass loss and disk breakage due to vibrations induced by the flowing helium gas. The mass loss is not only undesirable due to monetary loss from reduced final quantities of Mo-99, but also due to the hazards associated with radioactive material trapped in the cooling lines and particle filters. The effect of flow rate and target geometry on the flow induced vibrations need to be quantified, and recommendations provided to minimize this mass loss. This work describes LANL’s experimental characterization of the flow induced vibrations and disk mass loss in a reduced scale set-up containing 10 Mo-100 disks. We use high speed imaging, displacement measurements and microphone measurements combined with signal processing to estimate the vibration frequency of each disk. The effect of disk thickness, target fit and duration of testing on the mass loss is described. We find that in the current configuration of NMR targets, the vibrations and mass loss on the first disk are minimized, while those in the adjacent disks are highest. The microphone and high-speed image data show that increased flow rates and increased duration of testing increases vibration frequency and mass loss. The mass loss is due to both disk rotation and back and forth motion. There are visible wear marks on the disks with the highest mass loss. We also note that the current NMR window gap reduces flow induced vibrations compared to the previous smaller gaps. Longer duration testing will provide more data and verification for the findings presented in this report. The work will be continued in FY 24.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Scalable Nano-Scaffold SOFC Anode Architecture Enabling Direct Hydrocarbon Utilization

This project is based on WVU’s pending patents, technology and aims to design and modify the internal surfaces of the Ni/YSZ anode from currently commercially viable Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) using the additive manufacturing process of Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD). The surface architecture/scaffold added onto the internal surface of the anode possesses an engineered nanostructure but it features only commonly-used oxide conductors and electro-catalyst materials. The surface layer possesses a minimum thickness of ~2-40 nm and is solely designed to control the surface reforming reactions and to increase catalytic activity. Three-dimensional (3D) nano scaffold architectures with the noble metal nano-catalyst, low-cost bimetallic catalytic alloys, and nano-scale ionic conducting oxide fully compatible with the state-of-the-art Ni/YSZ anode, were applied to the internal surface of the entire porous SOFC anode using ALD. In the present work, the surface scaffold architecture is essentially multi-functional at the nano-scale, facilitated by the multiple heterostructured interfaces. It will significantly enhance the power density and cell durability for direct hydrocarbon utilization by (1) increasing the number of electrochemical reaction sites to enhance the hydrogen/hydrocarbon oxidation reactions; (2) reducing carbon formation; (3) mitigating the coarsening of backbone Ni phase and the oxidation attack of Ni from oxidants (e.g., H2O, CO2); and (4) promoting the internal reforming capabilities, especially for natural gas applications. ALD is employed to generate stable anode surface architectures that are uniform, precisely controllable at the atomic scale, and accurately repeatable for processing. The engineered anode surface nano-scaffold architecture was cataloged and analyzed using High-resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and cell power/durability performance assessed via comprehensive electrochemical performance testing with commercial specimens and relevant environments using hydrocarbon fuels. To the best of our knowledge, this project is the First Report on ALD of Ni/YSZ. The actual achievement of this Project includes (1). Successful demonstration of 7 types of ALD layers on Ni/YSZ anode, including Co, Ni, Mn, Pt, Ru, ZrOx and multi-functional nano-composite. (1). Conformal coating and subsequently spontaneously pinning the discrete nano-catalyst, including the precious metal nano-catalyst and the Ni and Co catalysts, on the YSZ surface upon the electrochemical operation in the reduced atmosphere. Those nano-catalysts on the ionic-conducting YSZ provided excellent sites for promoting internal reforming; (2). Demonstrated ALD coating increased both catalytic activity and conductivity of Ni/YSZ. Conformal coating provided dopants and introduced additional electrical conducting pathways on the YSZ ionic conductor. The doped surface layer of YSZ with mixed conductivity thus further introduces the active triple phase boundaries adjacent to the ALD-coated nano-catalysts such as Pt, Co, and Ni that are pinned on the YSZ surface. The nano-composite ALD coating on Ni/YSZ anode has significantly increased cell durability; and (3). ALD coating of Ni/YSZ anode increased the power density of the entire cell by 300%. For a long time, the SOFC performance, such as the power density, was deemed hindered by the cathode. The sluggish oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in the cathode was deemed as hindering the power density of the SOFCs. For the anode-supported commercial SOFCs, the cell performance is considered to be limited by the cathode's performance. For the first time in the field of SOFC, this project has demonstrated that (1). the performance of commercial SOFCs can be further increased by the ALD coating on Ni/YSZ anode backbone. (2). ALD coating on Ni/YSZ fuel electrodes results in the enhancement of power density, and increased reliability, robustness, and endurance of SOFCs, for their application using both hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels over the entire operating temperature range of 650-800ºC for the inherently functional commercial cells. (3). ALD coating provides alternative approaches of exsolutions for introducing the stable catalyst onto the internal surface of the Ni/YSZ electrode. ALD coating could be much more versatile than exsolution in employing the catalysts with various chemistries onto the various backbones. (4). Due to the negligible amount of ALD materials coated onto the internal surface of the porous cathode of the as-fabricated cells, a peak power density increase up to 300 % induced by ALD coating was simultaneously achieved in terms of both power density and specific power. (5). The ALD coating developed through this project was applied to both the SOFC and Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC). SOEC’s face a similar but more demanding need to improve the fuel electrode's performance. It opens further research directions for electrocatalytic surface nanoionics with a wide range of chemistry. It will revolutionize our ability to render the formation of a nanostructured electrode that has been constantly pursued yet barely achieved for practical SOFC/SOEC applications. The research is also immediately transformative since both the preliminary data and the proposed work are on the direct implantation of nanoionics into the state-of-the-art inherently functional SOCs. It represents an immediate impact on the commercial sectors in SOC technology since the applied ALD processing is computer-controlled ALD coating using the commercial ALD systems, and it is scalable to both the single cells and SOC stacks.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗