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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,567 records · Page 87
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2013

Comparative analysis of data collection methods for individualized modeling of radiologists' visual similarity judgments

Rationale and Objectives: We conducted an observer study to investigate how the data collection method affects the efficacy of modeling individual radiologists judgments regarding the perceptual similarity of breast masses on mammograms. Materials and Methods: Institutional review board approval was obtained prior to the study. Six observers of variable experience levels in breast imaging were recruited to assess the perceptual similarity of mammographic masses. The observers subjective judgments were collected using: (i) a rating method, (ii) a preference method, and (iii) a hybrid method combining rating and ranking. Personalized user models were developed with the collected data to predict observers opinions. The relative efficacy of each data collection method was assessed based on the classification accuracy of the resulting user models. Results: The hybrid data collection method produced significantly more accurate individualized user models of perceptual opinions with comparable and sometimes better time efficiency than the other two data collection methods. The user models derived from hybrid data were clearly superior even when developed with a dramatically smaller number of training cases. Conclusions: A hybrid method combining rating and ranking is an intuitive and efficient way for collecting subjective similarity judgments to model human perceptual opinions with a higher accuracy than other more commonly used data collection methods.

breast imaging↗
DOE OSTI2018

Nutrient canals and porosity of the bony palate: A basis for the biological plausibility of the anterior middle superior alveolar nerve block

Background. The authors investigated morphologic parameters of the palatal cortex that affect the diffusion of local anesthetic solution in the region of the anterior middle superior alveolar (AMSA) nerve block injection site. Methods. The authors used computed tomographic (CT) and micro-CT imaging to assess 20 human skulls from an anatomic collection. Analysis of the C1 images included frequency, distribution, and width of the nutrient canals in the bony palate, according to to the person's sex and age. Micro-CT analysis involved measuring the thickness and porosity of palatal cortical bone in the area of the AMSA injection site in relation to the thickness and porosity of the opposite buccal cortical bone. Results. There was a statistically significant difference (P = .042) in the location of the nutrient canals between male specimens (> 50% in the border region) and female specimens (> 50% in the palatal process). Furthermore, the female skulls had significantly wider nutrient canal foramina (P = .042) than did the male skulls. Despite greater thickness, the palatal cortex in the area of the AMSA injection site had slightly greater porosity than did the buccal cortex. A significantly greater number of microcanals penetrated the whole cortical thickness in palatal than in buccal cortical bone (P = .001). Conclusions. The distribution and width of nutrient canals differed between male and female skulls. At the microscopic level, structural characteristics of the palatal cortex provide a good anatomic basis for the potential of a satisfactory AMSA injection success rate. Practical Implications. The AMSA technique success rate might be increased if the clinician adjusts the injection site to the distribution of nutrient canals, depending on the sex of the patient.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Benchtop assessment of sealing efficacy and breathability of additively manufactured (AM) face masks

The onset of the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) led to a shortage of personal protective equipment (PPE), medical devices, and other medical supplies causing many stakeholders and the general public alike to turn to additive manufacturing (AM) as a stopgap when normally accessible devices were not available. However, without a method to test these AM constructs, there continued to be a disconnect between AM suppliers and the community’s needs. The objective of this study was to characterize the pressure drop and leakage of four different publicly available AM face mask models with two filter material combinations, as well as to investigate the impact of frame modification techniques including the use of foam strips and hot-water face forming to improve fit when the masks are donned on manikin head forms. AM face mask frame designs were downloaded from public repositories during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. AM face masks were fabricated and tested on manikin head forms within a custom chamber containing dry aerosolized NaCl. Pressure drops, particle penetration, and leakage were evaluated for various flow rates and NaCl concentrations. Results indicated that filter material combination and frame modification played a major role in the overall performance of the AM face masks studied. Filter material combinations showed improved performance when high filtration fabric was used, and the cross-sectional area of the fabric was increased. AM frame modifications appeared to improve AM face mask leakage performance by as much as 69.6%.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Teens, Tweets, and Tanning Beds: Rethinking the Use of Social Media for Skin Cancer Prevention

The incidence of skin cancer is rising in the U.S., and melanoma, the deadliest form, is increasing disproportionately among young white women. Indoor tanning is a modifiable risk factor for all skin cancers and continues to be used at the highest rates in young white women. Adolescents and young adults report personal appearance–based reasons for using indoor tanning. Previous research has explored the influences on tanning bed use, including individual factors as well as relationships with peers, family, schools, media influences, legislation, and societal beauty norms. Adolescents and young adults also have high rates of social media usage, and research is emerging on how best to utilize these platforms for prevention. Social media has the potential to be a cost-effective way to reach large numbers of young people and target messages at characteristics of specific audiences. Recent prevention efforts have shown that comprehensive prevention campaigns that include technology and social media are promising in reducing rates of indoor tanning among young adults. This review examines the literature on psychosocial influences on indoor tanning among adolescents and young adults, and highlights ways in which technology and social media can be used for prevention efforts.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

High-Grade Vulvar, Vaginal, and Anal Precancers Among U.S. Adolescents and Young Adults After Human Papillomavirus Vaccine Introduction

Since human papillomavirus vaccine introduction, incidence rates of cervical precancers have decreased; however, the vaccine's impact on noncervical anogenital precancers has not been shown. These precancers are identified opportunistically and are not collected routinely by most cancer registries. This study examined the incidence rates of high-grade (intraepithelial lesions grade 3) vulvar, vaginal, and anal precancers among persons aged 15–39 years using 2000–2017 data from select cancer registries covering 27.8% of the U.S. population that required reporting of these precancers. Trends in incidence rates were evaluated with Joinpoint regression. Analyses were conducted in 2020. High-grade vulvar precancer rates declined by 21.0% per year after human papillomavirus vaccine introduction among females aged 15–19 years. In addition, high-grade vaginal precancer rates declined by 19.1% per year among females aged 15–29 years after human papillomavirus vaccine introduction. Compared with that in the prevaccine period when high-grade anal precancer rates were increasing, anal precancer rates after human papillomavirus vaccine introduction were stable among females aged 15–29 years and among males aged 30–39 years. Among males aged 15–29 years, the rates increased over the entire period but less so after human papillomavirus vaccine introduction. In conclusion, opportunistically-detected high-grade vulvar and vaginal precancers among females aged 15–29 years decreased and anal precancers stabilized in years after the introduction of the human papillomavirus vaccine, which is suggestive of the impact of the vaccine on noncervical human papillomavirus cancers.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

A deterministic method for PWR loading pattern optimization

A new deterministic approach to core loading optimization is presented. Selection of fuel enrichment and burnable poison (BP) arrangement in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) core are optimally determined subject to power peaking factor (PF) constraints. The deterministic approach is based on the method of Lagrange multipliers and the direct adjoining approach for the inequality power PF constraint. The optimality conditions are derived using calculus of variations resulting in the presence of jump conditions and a linear control Hamiltonian. The optimal control problems are addressed by simultaneously minimizing the Hamiltonian using the gradient method and performing Newton's method in different regions of the core to produce viable solutions for the controls. Without active control of the power profile in PWRs during depletion, our methodology is able to satisfy the power PF constraint at all times by proper loading selection at the beginning of cycle (BOC). This is achieved by promoting the proper burnup path forward in time during the calculation of the forward optimality conditions. Here this information is utilized in the adjoint burnup calculation, which acts to propagate the optimal control path back to the BOC during the calculation of the adjoint optimality conditions. The methodology has been developed into a new code DMCO (Deterministic Multi-Control Optimization) which can produce two-dimensional two-group depletion results in approximately seven minutes per optimization iteration on a personal computer. No application of heuristics is required and the code is capable of finding solutions from initial control distributions. A preliminary case study is presented for the Westinghouse AP600 first cycle fuel loading design which achieved an extended fuel cycle while satisfying power PF constraints.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

A game-theoretic approach to nuclear fuel cycle transition analysis under uncertainty

We present a novel methodology for optimizing nuclear fuel cycle transitions that incorporates a game-theoretic approach and captures interactions among multiple decision makers. The methodology is demonstrated using a two-person sequential game with uncertainty, where the two players represent a policy maker and an electric utility company, though the method generalizes to any number and type of individual decision making entities. Coupled with a sophisticated nuclear fuel cycle simulator, rich transition scenarios may be analyzed to identify robust transition strategies. These strategies explicitly treat uncertainties using a stochastic programming approach, devising optimal near-term hedging strategies that simultaneously consider all possible states of the world, maintaining flexibility to allow for intelligent recourse decisions once uncertainties are resolved. In the demonstration game, reactor technology and fuel cycle scheme adopted by the electric utility are shown to depend on both the policy maker’s decisions and the distributions over uncertain technological and economic outcomes.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2012

The history of neutrinos, 1930-1985. What have we learned about neutrinos? What have we learned using neutrinos?

An attempt to remember some of the main events which highlight the evolution of our knowledge of the neutrinos and their properties, the 'families' of particles, a few of the very interesting persons who contributed to this progress, as well as the contribution of neutrino beam experiments to the validation of the electro-weak and quantum-chromo-dynamic theories, and the structure of the nucleon. - Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Early history: continuity of {beta}-spectrum, Pauli letter, universal Fermi interaction. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Neutrino beams and the discovery of the muon neutrino. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Gargamelle, the discovery of the neutral current and the verification of the quark-gluon nature of the parton. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Deep inelastic scattering at higher energies: scaling, quantitative verification of QCD, structure functions.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2019

Lessons from the light of a neutron star merger

The discovery by Advanced LIGO/Virgo of gravitational waves from the binary neutron star merger GW170817, and subsequently by astronomers of transient emission across the electromagnetic spectrum, has initiated a new era of multi-messenger gravitational wave astronomy. Here I summarize the electromagnetic discoveries in the context of theoretical counterpart models and present personal views on the major take-away lessons and outstanding new questions from this watershed event, focused on the implications for nuclear physics. The luminosity and colors of the early optical emission discovered within a day of the merger agree well with predictions for “kilonova” emission, powered by the radioactive decay of light r-process nuclei (atomic mass number A≲140). The transition of the spectral energy distribution to near-infrared wavelengths on timescales of days indicates that inner portions of the ejecta contain heavy r-process nuclei with high UV/optical opacity due to the presence of at least some lanthanide elements (A≳140). The “blue” and “red” ejecta components likely possess distinct origins (e.g. dynamical ejecta, magnetar-powered wind, or accretion disk outflow), with implications for the merger process (e.g. the lifetime of the remnant prior to black hole formation) and fundamental properties of neutron stars. I outline the predicted diversity in the electromagnetic emission of future mergers−observed with different ingoing binary masses and/or viewing angles−discovered in the years ahead as LIGO/Virgo reach design sensitivity.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Comparison of typical year and multiyear building simulations using a 55-year actual weather data set from China

Weather has significant impacts on the thermal environment and energy use in buildings. Thus, accurate weather data are crucial for building performance evaluations. Traditionally, typical year data inputs are used to represent long-term weather data. However, there is no guarantee that a single year represents the changing climate well. In this study, the long-term representation of a typical year was assessed by comparing it to a 55-year actual weather data set. To investigate the weather impact on building energy use, 559 simulation runs of a prototype office building were performed for 10 large cities covering all climate zones in China. The analysis results demonstrated that the weather data varied significantly from year to year. Hence, a typical year cannot reflect the variation range of weather fluctuations. Typical year simulations overestimated or underestimated the energy use and peak load in many cases. With the increase in computational power of personal computers, it is feasible and essential to adopt multiyear simulations for full assessments of long-term building performance, as this will improve decision-making by allowing for the full consideration of variations in building energy use.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Range cost-effectiveness of plug-in electric vehicle for heterogeneous consumers: An expanded total ownership cost approach

Plug-in electric vehicles (PEV) appears to have sales momentum in major personal vehicle markets but are still at the early market stage. Opportunities to accelerate PEV adoption can be discovered through comprehensive total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis. Understanding the cost-effective electric ranges of PEVs for consumers, manufacturers, and the society is critical for any discussion of PEV mass markets. This study expanded the traditional TCO approach by (1) fully considering heterogeneous consumer driving patterns, (2) quantifying the charging inconvenience and range anxiety cost of battery-electric vehicles (BEVs), and (3) monetizing both tangible and intangible PEV policies. Uncertainties were handled through Monte Carlo simulation. The results suggest that BEVs with an electric range of 250–350 km have the lowest TCO in cities with government-enacted purchase limitations, and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) have the lowest TCO in cities without purchase limitations, even when considering PEV subsidies. The lowest TCO for some consumer groups is obtained by BEVs with an electric range of 400–450 km, especially in northern China, where the weather is colder. The cost-effective all-electric range for BEVs in each city in 2025 will decrease due to improved battery performance in cold environments and an expanded charging infrastructure. Finally, based on TCO, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are currently more suitable for drivers with a high average daily mileage or a large mileage variance. However, by 2025, BEVs with a long driving range may become a more cost-effective choice for these drivers.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Extending the Brick schema to represent metadata of occupants

Here, energy-related behaviors of occupants constitute a key factor influencing building performance; accordingly, the measured occupant data can support the objective assessment of the indoor environment and energy performance of buildings, which can inform building design and operational decisions. Existing data schemas focus on metadata of sensors, meters, physical equipment, and IoT devices in buildings; however, they are limited in representing the metadata of occupant data, including occupants' presence in spaces, movement between spaces, interactions with building systems or IoT devices, and preference of indoor environmental needs. To address this gap, an extension to the widely adopted metadata schema, Brick, is proposed to represent the contextual, behavioral, and demographic information of occupants. The proposed extension includes four parts: (1) a new “Occupant” class to represent occupants' demography and energy related behavioral patterns, (2) new subclasses under the Equipment class to represent envelope system and personal thermal comfort devices, (3) new subclasses under the Point class to represent occupant sensing and status, and (4) new auxiliary properties for occupant interactable equipment to represent the level of controllability for each piece of equipment by occupants. The extension is implemented in the Brick schema and has been tested using multiple occupant datasets from the ASHRAE Global Occupant Database. The extension enables Brick schema to capture diverse types of occupant sensing data and their metadata for FAIR data research and applications.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2013

Amplification of tumor inducing putative cancer stem cells (CSCs) by vitamin A/retinol from mammary tumors

Highlights: •Vitamin A supports self renewal of putative CSCs from mammary tumors. •These cells exhibit impaired retinol metabolism into retinoic acid. •CSCs from mammary tumors differentiate into mammary specific cell lineages. •The cells express mammary stem cell specific CD29 and CD49f markers. •Putative CSCs form highly metastatic tumors in NOD SCID mouse. -- Abstract: Solid tumors contain a rare population of cancer stem cells (CSCs) that are responsible for relapse and metastasis. The existence of CSC however, remains highly controversial issue. Here we present the evidence for putative CSCs from mammary tumors amplified by vitamin A/retinol signaling. The cells exhibit mammary stem cell specific CD29{sup hi}/CD49f{sup hi}/CD24{sup hi} markers, resistance to radiation and chemo therapeutic agents and form highly metastatic tumors in NOD/SCID mice. The cells exhibit indefinite self renewal as cell lines. Furthermore, the cells exhibit impaired retinol metabolism and do not express enzymes that metabolize retinol into retinoic acid. Vitamin A/retinol also amplified putative CSCs from breast cancer cell lines that form highly aggressive tumors in NOD SCID mice. The studies suggest that high purity putative CSCs can be isolated from solid tumors to establish patient specific cell lines for personalized therapeutics for pre-clinical translational applications. Characterization of CSCs will allow understanding of basic cellular and molecular pathways that are deregulated, mechanisms of tumor metastasis and evasion of therapies that has direct clinical relevance.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2013

Induction of human breast cell carcinogenesis by triclocarban and intervention by curcumin

Highlights: •Triclocarban exposure induces breast epithelial cell carcinogenesis. •Triclocarban induces the Erk–Nox pathway, ROS elevation, and DNA damage. •Physiological doses of triclocarban induce cellular carcinogenesis. •Non-cytotoxic curcumin blocks triclocarban-induced carcinogenesis and pathways. -- Abstract: More than 85% of breast cancers are sporadic and attributable to long-term exposure to environmental carcinogens and co-carcinogens. To identify co-carcinogens with abilities to induce cellular pre-malignancy, we studied the activity of triclocarban (TCC), an antimicrobial agent commonly used in household and personal care products. Here, we demonstrated, for the first time, that chronic exposure to TCC at physiologically-achievable nanomolar concentrations resulted in progressive carcinogenesis of human breast cells from non-cancerous to pre-malignant. Pre-malignant carcinogenesis was measured by increasingly-acquired cancer-associated properties of reduced dependence on growth factors, anchorage-independent growth and increased cell proliferation, without acquisition of cellular tumorigenicity. Long-term TCC exposure also induced constitutive activation of the Erk–Nox pathway and increases of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells. A single TCC exposure induced transient induction of the Erk–Nox pathway, ROS elevation, increased cell proliferation, and DNA damage in not only non-cancerous breast cells but also breast cancer cells. Using these constitutively- and transiently-induced changes as endpoints, we revealed that non-cytotoxic curcumin was effective in intervention of TCC-induced cellular pre-malignancy. Our results lead us to suggest that the co-carcinogenic potential of TCC should be seriously considered in epidemiological studies to reveal the significance of TCC in the development of sporadic breast cancer. Using TCC-induced transient and constitutive endpoints as targets will likely help identify non-cytotoxic preventive agents, such as curcumin, effective in suppressing TCC-induced cellular pre-malignancy.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2016

FXR blocks the growth of liver cancer cells through inhibiting mTOR-s6K pathway

The nuclear receptor Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) is likely a tumor suppressor in liver tissue but its molecular mechanism of suppression is not well understood. In this study, the gene expression profile of human liver cancer cells was investigated by microarray. Bioinformatics analysis of these data revealed that FXR might regulate the mTOR/S6K signaling pathway. This was confirmed by altering the expression level of FXR in liver cancer cells. Overexpression of FXR prevented the growth of cells and induced cell cycle arrest, which was enhanced by the mTOR/S6K inhibitor rapamycin. FXR upregulation also intensified the inhibition of cell growth by rapamycin. Downregulation of FXR produced the opposite effect. Finally, we found that ectopic expression of FXR in SK-Hep-1 xenografts inhibits tumor growth and reduces expression of the phosphorylated protein S6K. Taken together, our data provide the first evidence that FXR suppresses proliferation of human liver cancer cells via the inhibition of the mTOR/S6K signaling pathway. FXR expression can be used as a biomarker of personalized mTOR inhibitor treatment assessment for liver cancer patients. -- Highlights: •FXR inhibits the proliferation of liver cancer cells by prolonging G0/G1 phase. •Microarray results indicate that mTOR-S6k signaling is involved in cellular processes in which FXR plays an important role. •FXR blocks the growth of liver cancer cells via the inhibition of the mTOR/S6K signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

Metabololipidomic profiling of functional immunoresolvent clusters and eicosanoids in mammalian tissues

Highlights: • New methods for metabololipidomics of specialized proresolving mediators (SPM) and classic eicosanoids. • Illustration from human blood coagulation. • Illustration from solid tumor. • Regulation of SPM biosynthesis by adenosine and adenosine deaminase. Metabolomics enables a systems approach to interrogate the bioactive mediators, their pathways and further metabolites involved in the physiology and pathophysiology of human and animal tissues. New metabololipidomic approaches with mass spectrometry presented in this brief review can now be utilized for the identification and profiling of lipid mediator networks that control inflammation-resolution in human blood and healthy and diseased solid tissues. Coagulation of blood is a protective response that prevents excessive bleeding on injury of blood vessels. Here, we review novel approaches to understand the relationship(s) between coagulation and resolution of inflammation and infection. To determine whether coagulation is involved in host-protective actions by lipid mediators, we used a metabololipidomic-based profiling approach with human whole blood (WB) during coagulation. We identified recently temporal clusters of endogenously produced pro-thrombotic and proinflammatory lipid mediators (eicosanoids), as well as specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) in this vital process. In addition to the classic eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes), a specific SPM cluster was identified that consists of resolvin E1 (RvE1), RvD1, RvD5, lipoxin B{sub 4}, and maresin 1, each of which present at bioactive concentrations (0.1–1 nM). The removal of adenosine from coagulating blood samples significantly enhances SPM amounts and unleashes the biosynthesis of RvD3, RvD4, and RvD6 evident following rapid snap freezing with centrifugation before extraction and LC-MS-MS. The classic cyclooxygenase inhibitors, celecoxib and indomethacin, that block thromboxanes and prostanoids do not block production of the clot-driven SPM cluster. Unbiased mass cytometry analysis demonstrated that the SPM cluster produced in human blood targets leukocytes at the single-cell level, directly activating extracellular signaling in human neutrophils and monocytes. Human whole blood treated with the components of this SPM cluster enhanced both phagocytosis and killing of Escherichia coli by leukocytes. Thus, we identified a pro-resolving lipid mediator circuit and specific SPM cluster that promotes host defense. This new lipid mediator (LM)-SPM metabololipidomic approach now provides accessible metabolomic profiles in healthy and diseased human tissues, including cancer, for precision and personalized medicine.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

Development and assessment of a physics-based simulation model to investigate residential PM 2.5 infiltration across the US housing stock

The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Population Impact Assessment Modeling Framework (PIAMF) was expanded here to enable determination of indoor PM 2.5 concentrations and exposures in a set of 50,000 homes representing the US housing stock. A mass-balance model is used to calculate time-dependent pollutant concentrations within each home. The model includes size- and species-dependent removal mechanisms. The particle model was applied to the housing samples of the Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal Air (RIOPA) and The Detroit Exposure and Aerosol Research Study (DEARS) studies to compare model- and measurement-based estimates of indoor PM 2.5 of outdoor origin. Model-derived distributions of infiltration factors (ratio of indoor PM 2.5 of outdoor origin to outdoor PM 2.5 ) are compared to measurement-based distributions obtained in studies conducted in 11 US cities.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2017

Micro-environmental control for efficient local cooling

Micro-environment is hereby defined as the air space and environment around a person that directly impacts his/her thermal sensation. Most existing HVAC systems condition the air of the entire room including the unoccupied space, which leaves a big potential to save energy. This study aims at evaluating the performance of three existing air terminal devices (ATDs) to locally remove enough heat from the micro-environment to manage the thermal balance so as not to sacrifice thermal comfort when the ambient unoccupied space temperature is increased by 2.2 °C from 23.9 °C to 26.1 °C in the summer to reduce the external cooling load. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed, validated by full-scale chamber tests and applied to evaluate different configurations of the ATDs for local cooling. Results show that the predicted performance agreed well with the measurements, and the selected ATD, with only 50 W cooling power, was always able to remove a sufficient amount of heat from the microenvironment in a room of raised temperature, when the manikin was moved inside a semicircle movement range. The cooling performance of the jet was increased more by increasing the supply air flow rate than reducing the supply temperature and was highly dependent on the shooting angle. Finally, the heat flux from the manikin surface is very sensitive to the surface temperature and furniture placement, and proper specification of the surface temperature is crucial for the CFD simulation to match the measured results.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗