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NASA NTRS1989

Late Pleistocene and Holocene Glacial Evolution and Isotasy in the Antarctic Peninsula

Employing a numerical model of Payne et al. that simulates the late-Pleistocene evolution of the former Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet (APIS) as a basis, we compute the present-day postglacial vertical isostasy of this region. The region may also experience significant mid-to late-Holocene glacial mass changes. Climate and oceanographic studies indicate that the ice mass imbalance of this region may be of larger magnitude that elsewhere in Antarctica. We compute the crustal response to these more recent ice mass changes and Holocene fluctuations with a simple gravitating Earth model consisting of an elastic lithosphere and a viscoelastic mantle (half-space). The calculations demonstrate that the present-day response could be significant, possibly at the level of about 4 - 11 mm/yr. Such significant crustal motion could be driven by glacial mass changes integrated over the last 1000 years if the regional mantle viscosity is below about 2 x 10(exp 20) Pa sec. In this lower viscosity range, present-day crustal motion has a significant phase-lagged character and the composite lithosphere/mantle viscoelastic response to late-Holocene events dominates over purely elastic (instantaneous) responses to present-day ice mass changes. For a higher mantle viscosity, greater than about 5 x 10(exp 20) Pa sec, the predicted present-day vertical isostasy is dominated by gravitational response to glacial unloading during the 18 - 6 kyr BP collapse of the APIS, and is analogous to that known to be occurring in the Gulf of Bothnia and Hudson Bay.

Ivins, E. R.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Mathematical Modeling of an Oscillating Droplet

Oscillating droplets are of interest in a number of disciplines. A practical application is the oscillating drop method, which is a technique for measuring surface tension and viscosity of liquid metals. It is especially suited to undercooled and highly reactive metals, because it is performed by electromagnetic levitation. The natural oscillation frequency of the droplets is related to the surface tension of the material, and the decay of oscillations is related to its viscosity. The fluid flow inside the droplet must be laminar in order for this technique to yield good results. Because no experimental method has yet been developed to visualize flow in electromagnetically-levitated oscillating metal droplets, mathematical modeling is required to determine whether or not turbulence occurs. Three mathematical models of the flow: (1) assuming laminar conditions, (2) using the k-epsilon turbulence model, and (3) using the RNG turbulence model, respectively, are compared and contrasted to determine the physical characteristics of the flow. It is concluded that the RNG model is the best suited for describing this problem. The goal of the presented work was to characterize internal flow in an oscillating droplet of liquid metal, and to verify the accuracy of the characterization by comparing calculated surface tension and viscosity.

Berry, S.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Synthesis and Properties of Phenylethynyl-Terminated, Star-Branched, Phenylquinoxaline Oligomers

The primary objective of this work was to prepare readily melt and solution processable phenylquinoxaline (PQ) oligomers that could be thermally crosslinked to solvent-resistant resins. Thus, a mixture of 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-3-phenyl-6-fluoroquinoxaline and 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-phenyl-6-fluoroquinoxaline (HPFQ) was used to prepare star-branched PQ oligomers end-capped with 4-fluoro-4-phenylethynylbenzophenone (FPEB). 1,1,1-Tris(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethane (THPE) was used as the branching unit. The oligomer number-average molecular weights (M (bar) (sub n) S) as determined by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) were close to the calculated values of 2922, 4698, 6474, and 13,578 g/mol, and their intrinsic viscosities ranged from 0.16 to 0.57 dl/g (m-cresol at 30 C). The oligomers, which were quite soluble in common organic solvents, had glass transition temperatures (T (sub g) S) that ranged from 181 to 233 C (DSC, DELTA T = 20 C/min). They also underwent an exothermic cure with maxima from 377 to 443 C. The T (sub g) S of the cured oligomers ranged from 259 to 284 C depending on the oligomer M (bar) (sub n) and the curing conditions. The oligomers had low melt viscosities, e.g. an oligomer (SPQ-46) with an M (bar) (sub n) of 4816 g/mol (SEC) had a melt viscosity of 150 Pa s at 348 C. A cured thin film of SPQ-46, which was insoluble in common organic solvents, had a room temperature (RT) tensile strength of 100 MPa, a RT modulus of 2358 MPa, and a RT elongation of 5.9%. A cured sample of SPQ-46 displayed a RT titanium-titanium lap shear tensile strength of 35.2 MPa. SPQ-46/carbon fiber(IM-7) composites, were prepared that displayed a RT flexural strength of 1902 MPa, a RT modulus of 1.38 GPa and a RT open hole compressive strength of 433 MPa.

Ooi, I. H.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Thermocapillary Flow and Aggregation of Bubbles on a Solid Wall

During the electrolytic evolution of oxygen bubbles forming on a vertically oriented transparent tin oxide electrode, bubbles were found to be mutually attractive. The mechanism of the aggregation had never been explained satisfactorily until Guelcher et al. attributed it to thermocapillary flow. The gradient of surface tension of the liquid at the bubble's surface, which was established because of reaction heat and ohmic heat loss at the electrode wall, drives flow of the liquid adjacent to each bubble; the bubble "pumps" fluid along its surface away from the wall. Fluid flows toward the bubble to conserve mass and entrains nearby bubbles in the flow pattern. The same logic would apply when two bubbles of equal size are adjacent to each other on a warm wall. Each bubble drives thermocapillary flow and hence entrains the other in its flow pattern, which drives the aggregation. Our objective here is to perform experiments where the temperature gradient at the wall is well known and controlled. The theory can be quantitatively tested by studying aggregation of bubble pairs of equal size, and by varying system parameters such as temperature gradient, bubble size and fluid viscosity. The results are then compared with the theory in a quantitatively rigorous manner. We demonstrate that the theory without adjustable parameters is capable of quantitatively modeling the rate of aggregation of two bubbles. The equations governing the thermocapillary flow around a single stationary bubble on a heated or cooled wall in a semi-infinite domain were solved. Both Reynolds number and Marangoni number were much less than unity. The critical result is that liquid in the vicinity of a warm wall flows toward a stationary collector bubble. Consequently the thermocapillary flow around the stationary bubble entrains another bubble toward itself. The bubbles undergo hindered translation parallel to the wall with velocity U while the fluid flow field is described with u. Two velocities were equated by using a wall hindrance parameter q: U = qu [1] which shows the velocity of bubble is proportional to the entraining velocity. The hindrance parameter q can experimentally be measured independently. q can also be calculated by solving the equations of motion for a bubble translating parallel to a solid wall. The experimental cell is cylindrical with an ID of 10 cm and consists of a 1 cm deep main cell filled with silicone oil and flanked by two thermal reservoirs. The upper thermal reservoir was heated and the lower thermal reservoir was cooled so that the bubbles aggregate. Two types of silicone oil (eta = 0.02 and 0.50 Pa s) were used. Two equal sized air bubbles were injected into the cell with a syringe. The center-to-center distance of bubbles was observed through a microscope. Bubble radius ranged from 0.40 mm to 0.65 mm and the temperature gradients along with the cell ranged from 1400 to 5000 K/m. The bubbles aggregated when heat flows from the wall to the fluid. The velocities of bubbles were in the range of 1 - 10 microns/s. The separation r decreased more quickly when the temperature gradient was higher, bubble size was larger, and the oil viscosity was lower. r decreased more rapidly as the bubbles approached each other. Dimensionless time was arbitrarily set to be zero when the dimensionless center-to-center distance between the bubbles was 4. All the bubble trajectories fall onto one line, especially in the range of dimensionless distance from 4 to 3. This means the relative movement of the bubble pair is proportional to the temperature gradient and bubble size and it is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the oil. This result strongly suggests that the thermocapillary flow-based aggregation mechanism is correct. A value of q can be estimated by fitting the scaled data to Eq. [1]. A best fit value of q was obtained as q = 0.26 with a standard deviation of 0.03. Independent experimental results for q for a 0.5 mm radius bubble, give values of q in the range 0.11 to 0.23. The value of q obtained from solving the equations of motion reveals q has values in the range 0.23 - 0.30. Since the full scale of possible values of q is zero to one, the maximum deviation of independently determined values of q from the best fit value was 15% of this full scale. Thus reasonable quantitative agreement between theory and experiment has been obtained.

Kasumi, Hiroki↗

NASA NTRS2001

Modeling of Turbulent Flow in Electromagnetically Levitated Metal Droplets

This article details an effort to improve the understanding and prediction of turbulent flow inside a droplet of molten metal levitated in an electromagnetic field. It is shown that the flow field in a test case, a nickel droplet levitated under microgravity conditions, is in the transitional regime between laminar and turbulent flow. Past research efforts have used laminar, enhanced viscosity, and k-epsilon turbulence models to describe the flow. The method highlighted in our study is the renormalization group (RNG) algorithm. We show that an accurate description of the turbulent eddy viscosity is critical in order to obtain realistic velocity fields, and that the turbulent eddy viscosity cannot be uniform in levitated droplets. The RNG method does not impose isotropic length or time scales on the flow field, thus allowing such nonuniform features to be captured. A number of other materials processing applications exhibit similarly complex flow characteristics, such as highly recirculating, transitional, and free surface flows, for which this modeling approach may prove useful.

Berry, S.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Chondrules in the LEW85332 Ungrouped Carbonaceous Chondrite: Fractionation Processes in the Solar Nebula

We studied 14 chondrules separated from LEW85332, an ungrouped type-3 carbonaceous chondrite related to CR chondrites; 23 elements were determined by neutron activation and the chondrules were characterized petrographically. Oxygen isotopic compositions were determined by R. N. Clayton and T. K. Mayeda for seven chondrules. Chondrule abundance ratios tend to form one of two distinct patterns. In low FeO chondrules, refractory lithophile patterns are flat (i.e., unfractionated); siderophile abundances are high and show a small decrease with increasing volatility. Although high FeO chondrules also have flat refractory lithophile abundance patterns, siderophile abundances are highly fractionated; refractory Ir is very low and Fe is very high relative to other siderophiles. We suggest that the low FeO chondrules in LEW85332 formed early in nebular history when metal was intimately mixed with silicates in the chondrule precursors, and that the viscosity of the liquid-solid mix was too high to permit expulsion of the metal by centrifugal action; their porphyritic structures are consistent with incomplete melting, which would result in relatively high viscosities. When the high FeO chondrules formed somewhat later, much of the Fe was oxidized and the melting of precursors was more extensive, FeO and other oxidized siderophiles were retained in the silicate liquid, and metal was lost, possibly expelled from low viscosity chondrule melts. The O isotopic compositions of the chondrules form a linear array of slope 0.93 +/- 0.05 on a three-isotope diagram, parallel to the carbonaceous chondrite anhydrous minerals (CCAM) line and a CR chondrule array, but offset from the latter by -1% in (delta)O-18. Some or all of this offset may reflect incorporation of O from Antarctic water during weathering. Chondrule (Delta)O-17 values correlate positively with FeO, possibly indicating that the (Delta)O-17 of the nebular gas composition increased with time. The chemical and O isotopic data suggest a temporal sequence extending from early, low FeO to late high FeO chondrules.

Wasson, John T.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Surface Oscillations of An Electromagnetically Levitated Droplet

Oscillating droplets are of interest in a number of disciplines. A practical application is the oscillating drop method, which is a technique for measuring surface tension and viscosity of liquid metals. It is especially suited to undercooled and highly reactive metals, because it is usually performed by electromagnetic levitation. The natural oscillation frequency a f the droplets is related to the surface tension of the material, and the decay of oscillations is related to its viscosity. The fluid flow inside the droplet must be laminar in order for this technique to yield good results. Because no experimental method has yet been developed to visualize flow in electromagnetically-levitated oscillating metal droplets, mathematical modeling is required to determine whether or not turbulence occurs. Three mathematical models of the flow: (1) assuming laminar conditions, (2) using the turbulence model, and (3) using the RNG turbulence model, respectively, are compared and contrasted to determine the physical characteristics of the flow. It is concluded that the RNG model is the best suited for describing this problem. The goal of the presented work was to characterize internal flow in an oscillating droplet of liquid metal, and to verify the accuracy of the characterization by comparing calculated surface tension and viscosity values to experimentally-obtained results.

Berry, S.↗

NASA NTRS2002

A Simplified Model for an Evolving Protoplanetary Nebula

The dynamical evolution of the protoplanetary nebula is investigated using analytical solutions of the surface density transport equations. Constant and beta viscosity turbulence models are compared with a functional analytical model and the well-known alpha viscosity formulation. The beta viscosity model, heretofore used for steady-state disks, is shown to be a viable tool for separating dynamic and thermodynamic properties of an evolving disk.

Davis, Sanford S.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Effects of Amine and Anhydride Curing Agents on the VARTM Matrix Processing Properties

To ensure successful application of composite structure for aerospace vehicles, it is necessary to develop material systems that meet a variety of requirements. The industry has recently developed a number of low-viscosity epoxy resins to meet the processing requirements associated with vacuum assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) of aerospace components. The curing kinetics and viscosity of two of these resins, an amine-cured epoxy system, Applied Poleramic, Inc. VR-56-4 1, and an anhydride-cured epoxy system, A.T.A.R.D. Laboratories SI-ZG-5A, have been characterized for application in the VARTM process. Simulations were carried out using the process model, COMPRO, to examine heat transfer, curing kinetics and viscosity for different panel thicknesses and cure cycles. Results of these simulations indicate that the two resins have significantly different curing behaviors and flow characteristics.

Brian W Grimsley↗

NASA NTRS2002

Polar Wander on Triton and Pluto Due to Volatile Migration

Polar wander may occur on Triton and Pluto because of volatile migration. Triton, with its low obliquity, can theoretically sublimate volatiles (mostly nitrogen) at the rate of approximately 10(exp 14) kilograms per year from the equatorial regions and deposit them at the poles. Assuming Triton to be rigid on the sublimation timescale, after approximately 10(exp 5) years the polar caps would become large enough to cancel the rotational flattening, with a total mass equivalent to a global layer approximately 120-250 m in depth. At this point the pole wanders about the tidal bulge axis, which is the line joining Triton and Neptune. Rotation about the bulge axis might be expected to disturb the leading side/trailing side cratering statistics. Because no such disturbance is observed, it may be that Triton's mantle viscosity is too high but its surface volatile inventory is too low to permit wander. On the other hand, its mantle viscosity might be low, so that any uncompensated cap load might be expected to wander toward the tidal bulge axis. In this case, the axis of wander passes through the equator from the leading side to the trailing side; rotation about this wander axis would not disturb the cratering statistics. Low-viscosity polar wander may explain the bright southern hemisphere: this is the pole which is wandering toward the equator. In any case the permanent polar caps may be geologically very young. Polar wander may possibly take place on Pluto, due to its obliquity oscillations and perihelion-pole geometry. However, Pluto is probably not experiencing any wander at present. The Sun has been shining strongly on the poles over the last half of the obliquity cycle, so that volatiles should migrate to the equator, stabilizing the planet against wander. Spacecraft missions to Triton and Pluto which measure the dynamical flattening could give information about the accumulation of volatiles at the poles. Such information is best obtained by measuring gravity and topography from orbiters, as was done for Mars with the highly successful Mars Global Surveyor.

Rubincam, David Parry↗

NASA NTRS2003

Survivability of Affordable High Temperature Polymer Matrix Composites for Propulsion Engine Components

PMR-type polyimides are regarded as state of the art high temperature polymers, due to their excellent thermo-mechanical properties and thermo-oxidative stability. One of their drawbacks, however is the inability to process them using cost-effective processing methods such as Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) and Resin Film Infusion (RFI). Development of low viscosity, high temperature polymers has been the subject of intense research. Recently, a new generation of low viscosity polyimides were synthesized by the introduction of twisted biphenyl or binapthyl groups into the backbone. This report details the progress for Year 1, which has involved acquiring samples and initiating Phases I and II of the proposed research. Specifically, studies of the process-property relationships of a series of polymers using oligomers based on 2,3,3' ,4'-biphenyltertracarboxylic dianhydride (PBDA) and a mixture of a diamine, BAX and a triamine, 1,3,5-Tris (4-aminophenoxybenzene), TAB, where the amount of TAB was varied have been initiated. The sample containing 10 percent TAB possesses a slightly higher degree of crystalline order versus that of the 20 percent TAB sample, based on x-ray diffraction studies of the b-staged oligomers. Both systems lose all of the crystalline order upon curing, however. The chemorheology has been studied as a function of the TAB content. While the magnitude of the viscosity is essentially the same for both systems, the cure kinetics of the 10 percent TAB system is faster than that for the 20 percent TAB system. The sample exhibits a melting-recrystallization-remelting behavior before the crosslinking commences. Correlation of other kinetic parameters, such as the activation energies for curing, the Tg and mechanical properties to the structure of these systems is underway. Future studies will involve characterization of mechanical and thermal properties of the pure resins and the fabrication of fiber reinforced composites using these materials.

Dean, Derrick↗

NASA NTRS2003

Structural Fluctuation and Thermophysical Properties of Molten II-VI Compounds

The objectives of the project is to conduct ground-based experimental and theoretical research on the structural fluctuations and thermophysical properties of molten II-VI compounds to enhance the basic understanding of the existing flight experiments in microgravity materials science programs and to study the fundamental heterophase fluctuations phenomena in these melts by: 1) Conducting neutron scattering analysis and measuring quantitatively the relevant thermophysical properties of the II-VI melts such as viscosity, electrical conductivity, thermal diffusivity and density as well as the relaxation characteristics of these properties to advance the understanding of the structural properties and the relaxation phenomena in these melts and 2) Performing theoretical analyses on the melt systems to interpret the experimental results. All the facilities required for the experimental measurements have been procured, installed and tested. A relaxation phenomenon, which shows a slow drift of the measured thermal conductivity toward the equilibrium value after cooling of the sample, was observed for the first time. An apparatus based on the transient torque induced by a rotating magnetic field has been developed to determine the viscosity and electrical conductivity of semiconducting liquids. Viscosity measurements on molten tellurium showed similar relaxation behavior as the measured diffusivity. Neutron scattering experiments were performed on the HgTe and HgZnTe melts and the results on pair distribution showed better resolution than previous reported.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS2004

Droplet-Surface Impingement Dynamics for Intelligent Spray Design

Spray cooling has high potential in thermal management and life support systems by overcoming the deleterious effect of microgravity upon two-phase heat transfer. In particular spray cooling offers several advantages in heat flux removal that include the following: 1) By maintaining a wetted surface, spray droplets impinge upon a thin fluid film rather than a dry solid surface; 2. Most heat transfer surfaces will not be smooth but rough. Roughness can enhance conductive cooling, aid liquid removal by flow channeling; and 3. Spray momentum can be used to a) substitute for gravity delivering fluid to the surface, b) prevent local dryout and potential thermal runaway and c) facilitate liquid and vapor removal. Yet high momentum results in high We and Re numbers characterizing the individual spray droplets. Beyond an impingement threshold, droplets splash rather than spread. Heat flux declines and spray cooling efficiency can markedly decrease. Accordingly we are investigating droplet impingement upon a) dry solid surfaces, b) fluid films, c) rough surfaces and determining splashing thresholds and relationships for both dry surfaces and those covered by fluid films. We are presently developing engineering correlations delineating the boundary between splashing and non-splashing regions. Determining the splash/non-splash boundary is important for many practical applications. Coating and cooling processes would each benefit from near-term empirical relations and subsequent models. Such demonstrations can guide theoretical development by providing definitive testing of its predictive capabilities. Thus, empirical relations describing the boundary between splash and non-splash are given for drops impinging upon a dry solid surface and upon a thin fluid film covering a similar surface. Analytical simplification of the power laws describing the boundary between the splash and non-splash regions yields insight into the engineering parameters governing the splash and non-splash outcomes of the fluid droplets. The power law correlation is shown separating the splashing versus non-splashing regions as developed for droplets impinging upon a dry solid surface. Splashing upon a dry surface is reasonably described by Ca greater than 0.85, reflecting the competing roles of surface tension and viscosity. The power law correlation is shown separating the splashing versus non-splashing regions as developed for droplets impinging upon a thin fluid film covering the solid surface. Splashing upon a thin fluid film, as described by v (pd/s) greater than 63, is governed by fluid density and surface tension, but is rather independent of viscosity. Finally, the data presented here suggests that a more direct dependence upon the surface tension and viscosity, given a better understanding of their interplay, would allow accurate description of the droplet-surface impacts for more complicated situations involving non-Newtonian fluids, specifically those exhibiting viscoelastic behavior.

Wal, Randy L. Vander↗

NASA NTRS2005

High T(sub g) Polymides for Resin Transfer Molding

A series of new polyimide resins with low melt viscosities and high glass transition temperatures (T(sub g)'s) of 340-350 C were developed for resin transfer molding (RTM) applications. The viscosities of these polyimide resins, based on 2,3,3'4'-Biphenyltetracarboxylic Dianhydride (a-BPDA), are in the range of 10-30 poise. The composites were fabricated successfully at 260-280 C with a pot life of 30-60 minutes by the RTM process. The viscosity profiles of the polyimide resins and the mechanical properties of the polyimide carbon fiber composites will be discussed.

Chuang, Kathy C.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Extensional Rheology Experiment Developed to Investigate the Rheology of Dilute Polymer Solutions in Microgravity

A fundamental characteristic of fluid is viscosity; that is, the fluid resists forces that cause it to flow. This characteristic, or parameter, is used by manufacturers and end-users to describe the physical properties of a specific material so that they know what to expect when a material, such as a polymer, is processed through an extruder, a film blower, or a fiber-spinning apparatus. Normally, researchers will report a shear viscosity that depends on the rate of an imposed shearing flow. Although this type of characterization is sufficient for some processes, simple shearing experiments do not provide a complete picture of what a processor may expect for all materials. Extensional stretching flows are common in many polymer-processing operations such as extrusion, blow molding, and fiber spinning. Therefore, knowledge of the complete rheological (ability to flow and be deformed) properties of the polymeric fluid being processed is required to accurately predict and account for the flow behavior. In addition, if numerical simulations are ever able to serve as a priori design tools for optimizing polymer processing operations such as those described above, an accurate knowledge of the extensional viscosity of a polymer system and its variation with temperature, concentration, molecular weight, and strain rate is critical.

Logsdon, Kirk A.↗

NASA NTRS2005

Navier-Stokes Computations With One-Equation Turbulence Model for Flows Along Concave Wall Surfaces

This report presents the use of a time-marching three-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes equation numerical solver with a one-equation turbulence model to simulate the flow fields developed along concave wall surfaces without and with a downstream extension flat wall surface. The 3-D Navier- Stokes numerical solver came from the NASA Glenn-HT code. The one-equation turbulence model was derived from the Spalart and Allmaras model. The computational approach was first calibrated with the computations of the velocity and Reynolds shear stress profiles of a steady flat plate boundary layer flow. The computational approach was then used to simulate developing boundary layer flows along concave wall surfaces without and with a downstream extension wall. The author investigated the computational results of surface friction factors, near surface velocity components, near wall temperatures, and a turbulent shear stress component in terms of turbulence modeling, computational mesh configurations, inlet turbulence level, and time iteration step. The computational results were compared with existing measurements of skin friction factors, velocity components, and shear stresses of the developing boundary layer flows. With a fine computational mesh and a one-equation model, the computational approach could predict accurately the skin friction factors, near surface velocity and temperature, and shear stress within the flows. The computed velocity components and shear stresses also showed the vortices effect on the velocity variations over a concave wall. The computed eddy viscosities at the near wall locations were also compared with the results from a two equation turbulence modeling technique. The inlet turbulence length scale was found to have little effect on the eddy viscosities at locations near the concave wall surface. The eddy viscosities, from the one-equation and two-equation modeling, were comparable at most stream-wise stations. The present one-equation turbulence model is an effective approach for turbulence modeling in the near solid wall surface region of flow over a concave wall.

Wang, Chi R.↗

NASA NTRS2007

Effective Inflow Conditions for Turbulence Models in Aerodynamic Calculations

The selection of inflow values at boundaries far upstream of an aircraft is considered, for one- and two-equation turbulence models. Inflow values are distinguished from the ambient values near the aircraft, which may be much smaller. Ambient values should be selected first, and inflow values that will lead to them after the decay second; this is not always possible, especially for the time scale. The two-equation decay during the approach to the aircraft is shown; often, the time scale has been set too short for this decay to be calculated accurately on typical grids. A simple remedy for both issues is to impose floor values for the turbulence variables, outside the viscous sublayer, and it is argued that overriding the equations in this manner is physically justified. Selecting laminar ambient values is easy, if the boundary layers are to be tripped, but a more common practice is to seek ambient values that will cause immediate transition in boundary layers. This opens up a wide range of values, and selection criteria are discussed. The turbulent Reynolds number, or ratio of eddy viscosity to laminar viscosity has a huge dynamic range that makes it unwieldy; it has been widely mis-used, particularly by codes that set upper limits on it. The value of turbulent kinetic energy in a wind tunnel or the atmosphere is also of dubious value as an input to the model. Concretely, the ambient eddy viscosity must be small enough to preserve potential cores in small geometry features, such as flap gaps. The ambient frequency scale should also be small enough, compared with shear rates in the boundary layer. Specific values are recommended and demonstrated for airfoil flows

Spalart, Philippe R.↗

NASA NTRS2008

Piezoelectric cantilever sensors

A piezoelectric cantilever with a non-piezoelectric, or piezoelectric tip useful as mass and viscosity sensors. The change in the cantilever mass can be accurately quantified by monitoring a resonance frequency shift of the cantilever. For bio-detection, antibodies or other specific receptors of target antigens may be immobilized on the cantilever surface, preferably on the non-piezoelectric tip. For chemical detection, high surface-area selective absorbent materials are coated on the cantilever tip. Binding of the target antigens or analytes to the cantilever surface increases the cantilever mass. Detection of target antigens or analytes is achieved by monitoring the cantilever's resonance frequency and determining the resonance frequency shift that is due to the mass of the adsorbed target antigens on the cantilever surface. The use of a piezoelectric unimorph cantilever allows both electrical actuation and electrical sensing. Incorporating a non-piezoelectric tip (14) enhances the sensitivity of the sensor. In addition, the piezoelectric cantilever can withstand damping in highly viscous liquids and can be used as a viscosity sensor in wide viscosity range.

Shih, Wan Y.↗