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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Extraterrestrial Mining Via Two Coupled Thermal-Driven Phenomena

Two-coupled thermal-driven phenomena, Marangoni effect and thermal fractional decomposition under high vacuum, previously observed by the authors could lead to an extraterrestrial mining operation that would significantly reduce mechanical operation and allow in-situ product extraction directly from the mineral without the necessity of neither mineral beneficiation nor use of terrestrial precursors. Thermal Marangoni effect alone and coupled with fractional decomposition have been corroborated through paths of 10 and 13 inches respectively on molten JSC-1A lunar regolith simulant presenting a novel and valuable potential for extraterrestrial mining as the observed outcome (self-transportation via Marangoni effect and fractional decomposition at higher temperature) will be more prominent on extraterrestrial surfaces under higher vacuum and reduced gravity. A comprehensive 3D model built by the authors demonstrated to be a crucial tool to determine the right location of the sample to optimize the gradient temperature along the wall of a long tubular crucible enhancing the Marangoni effect as surface tension (the driving force for the thermal Marangoni effect) depends on the temperature gradient.

Jesus A Dominguez↗
DOE OSTI2025

A Convolution Neural Network for Voltage Event Classification at a Photovoltaic Inverter

This paper presents a convolutional neural network (CNN) developed to identify voltage events in photovoltaic (PV) inverters. The CNN is trained on synthetic data generated using the IEEE 13-bus distribution feeder model and evaluated on field measured data collected from Energy Northwest’s Horn Rapids Solar, Storage, and Training (HRSST) facility. The study focuses on two common voltage events: faults and voltage sags. The CNN is configured to analyze voltage and current waveforms from three-phase PV systems, demonstrating excellent accuracy during training. Field data from the HRSST facility is employed to assess its real-world performance, where the CNN achieves perfect identification of faults and voltage sags in a sample of nine events. This work highlights the potential of the proposed method to enhance PV protection schemes, providing a robust foundation for improved voltage event detection and grid reliability.

Cornachione, Matthew A.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Using Fractional Clock-Period Delays in Telemetry Arraying

A set of special digital all-pass finite-impulse- response (FIR) filters produces phase shifts equivalent to delays that equal fractions of the sampling or clock period of a telemetry-data-processing system. These filters have been used to enhance the arraying of telemetry signals that have been received at multiple ground stations from spacecraft (see figure). Somewhat more specifically, these filters have been used to align, in the time domain, the telemetry-data sequences received by the various antennas, in order to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio of the composite telemetric signal obtained by summing the signals received by the antennas. The term arraying in this context denotes a method of enhanced reception of telemetry signals in which several antennas are used to track a single spacecraft. Each antenna receives a signal that comprises a sum of telemetry data plus noise, and these sum data are sent to an arraying combiner for processing. Correlation is the means used to align the set of data from one antenna with that from another antenna. After the data from all the antennas have been aligned in the time domain, they are all added together, sample by sample.

Fort, David↗
DOE OSTI2025

Expanding the physics reach of DUNE in the near and far detectors

The Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) is a next-generation long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment. Its primary goal is the determination of the neutrino mass hierarchy and the CP-violating phase. The DUNE physics programme also includes the detection of astrophysical neutrinos and the search for beyond the Standard Model (BSM) phenomena. DUNE will consist of a near detector (ND) complex placed at Fermilab, and a modular Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber (LArTPC) far detector (FD) to be built in the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF), approximately 1300 km away from the neutrino production point. This thesis describes three different projects within DUNE. First, a novel strategy to improve the triggering capabilities of the DUNE FD is proposed. It uses matched filters to enhance the production of online hits across all charge collection planes. Next, the possibility of detecting neutrinos coming from dark matter (DM) annihilations in the Sun with the FD is explored. The complementarity of DUNE to this kind of DM searches is shown. Finally, the simulation and reconstruction framework of ND-GAr, the gas argon ND proposed for Phase II of DUNE, is presented. A number of additions to this are described, particularly focused on the development of the particle identification (PID) capabilities of the detector. These are then used to perform the first event selection studies with an end-to-end simulation in ND-GAr, in particular the selection of pion exclusive samples in $\nu_{\mu}$ CC interactions. All three of these projects share the common goal of enhancing the physics programme of DUNE.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2013

Relationship between Eu{sup 3+} reduction and glass polymeric structure in Al{sub 2}O{sub 3}-modified borate glasses under air atmosphere

The reduction of Eu{sup 3+} to Eu{sup 2+} is realized efficiently in Eu{sub 2}O{sub 3}-doped borate glasses prepared under air condition by melting-quenching method. Luminescent spectra show an increasing tendency of Eu{sup 2+} emission with increasing Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} concentration in B{sub 2}O{sub 3}–Na{sub 2}O glasses. It is interesting that significant enhancement appeared of Eu{sup 2+} luminescence in the Al{sub 2}O{sub 3}-rich sample comparing to the samples of Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} less than 6 mol%. FTIR and Raman scattering measurements indicated that some new vibration modes assigned to the low-polymerized structure groups decomposed from the slight Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} dopant samples. These results demonstrated that the polymerization of the glass structure decreased with increasing incorporation of Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} into the borate glasses, linking to the efficiency of Eu{sup 3+} self-reduction in air at high temperature. - graphical abstract: A novel europium valence reduction phenomenon occurred in Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} modified borate glasses, FTIR and Raman measurements revealed that high polymeric groups were destroyed to low polymery structures with Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} addition. - Highlights: • The efficient reduction of Eu{sup 3+} to Eu{sup 2+} is observed in the B{sub 2}O{sub 3}–Na{sub 2}O glasses. • Eu{sup 2+} luminescence is significant enhanced in the Al{sub 2}O{sub 3}-rich glasses. • The introduction of Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} changed the network structure of the borate glasses. • High polymeric borate groups in the glass matrix may be destroyed to the lower ones.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2017

Microstructural evolution of neutron-irradiated T91 and NF616 to ~4.3 dpa at 469 °C

Ferritic-martensitic steels such as T91 and NF616 are candidate materials for several nuclear applications. Here, this study evaluates radiation resistance of T91 and NF616 by examining their microstructural evolutions and hardening after the samples were irradiated in the Advanced Test Reactor to ~4.3 displacements per atom (dpa) at an as-run temperature of 469 °C. In general, this irradiation did not result in significant difference in the radiation-induced microstructures between the two steels. Compared to NF616, T91 had a higher number density of dislocation loops and a lower level of radiation-induced segregation, together with a slightly higher radiation-hardening. Unlike dislocation loops developed in both steels, radiation-induced cavities were only observed in T91 but remained small with sub-10 nm sizes. Lastly, other than the relatively stable M 23 C 6 , a new phase (likely Sigma phase) was observed in T91 and radiation-enhanced MX → Z phase transformation was identified in NF616. Laves phase was not observed in the samples.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

Investigation of structural and electrical properties of La{sub 0.7}(Ba{sub 1-x}Ca{sub x}){sub 0.3}MnO{sub 3} compounds by sol-gel method

In this paper, we explored structural and electrical properties of La{sub 0.7}(Ba{sub 1-x}Ca{sub x}){sub 0.3}MnO{sub 3} (x = 0; 0.03; and 0.05) compounds. The general structure of perovskite manganites is AMnO{sub 3} (A= trivalent rare earth with divalent ion-doped). Average A-site cation size, external pressure, and the variance of the cation size σ{sup 2} are one of many factors that affected to magneto-transport properties of manganites as reported by others. In this work we focus only on the electrical properties in La{sub 0.7}Ba{sub 0.3}MnO{sub 3} Ca-doped compound which may influence crystal structure resulting resistivity phenomena under magnetic field influence. All samples were synthesized by sol-gel method from which fine powders were obtained. The X-ray powder diffraction pattern of powder materials shows that all samples are fully crystalline with a rhombohedral structure. Rietveld refinement shows that the presence of calcium has changed some crystal structural parameters such lattice parameter, Mn–O bond length, and Mn–O–Mn angles. The electrical resistivity of all synthesized materials investigated by four point probe method using Cryogenic Magnet in the temperature range of 50-300 K under influence a magnetic field shows resistivity temperature dependent. In fact presence of calcium has reduced the resistivity. It might occure because it has made an enhancement in the mobility of hopping electrons. The magnetic external field causes the resistivity decreased for all samples because host spin align by delocalizing the charge carries so electron itinerant through the lattice suggested by other authors. Both calcium dopant concentration and the applied external magnetic field shows strong correlation in reduction of resistivity.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
NASA NTRS1995

An Efficient Implementation of Forward-Backward LMS Adaptive Line Enhancer

An efficient implementation of the forward-backward least mean square (FBLMS) adaptive line enhancer is presented. Without changing the characteristics of the FBLMS adaptive line enhancer, the proposed implementation technique reduces multiplications by 25 percent and additions by 12.5 percent in two successive time samples in comparison to that of the direct implementation in both prediction and weight control. It can be applied to acquisition and tracking in both stationary and nonstationary environments.

adaptive line enhancers signal acquisition trackin↗
DOE OSTI2016

Investigation of radiation damage tolerance in interface-containing metallic nano structures

The proposed work seeks to conduct a basic study by applying experimental and computational methods to obtain quantitative influence of helium sink strength and proximity on He bubble nucleation and growth in He-irradiated nano-scale metallic structures, and the ensuing deformation mechanisms and mechanical properties. We utilized a combination of nano-scale in-situ tension and compression experiments on low-energy He-irradiated samples combined with site-specific microstructural characterization and modeling efforts. We also investigated the mechanical deformation of nano-architected materials, i.e. nanolattices which are comprised of 3-dimensional interwoven networks of hollow tubes, with the wall thickness in the nanometer range. This systematic approach will provide us with critical information for identifying key factors that govern He bubble nucleation and growth upon irradiation as a function of both sink strength and sink proximity through an experimentally-confirmed physical understanding. As an outgrowth of these efforts, we performed irradiations with self-ions (Ni 2+ ) on Ni-Al-Zr metallic glass nanolattices to assess their resilience against radiation damage rather than He-ion implantation. We focused our attention on studying individual bcc/fcc interfaces within a single nano structure (nano-pillar or a hollow tube): a single Fe (bcc)-Cu (fcc) boundary per pillar oriented perpendicular to the pillar axes, as well as pure bcc and fcc nano structures. Additional interfaces of interest include bcc/bcc and metal/metallic glass all within a single nano-structure volume. The model material systems are: (1) pure single crystalline Fe and Cu, (2) a single Fe (bcc)-Cu (fcc) boundary per nano structure (3) a single metal–metallic glass, all oriented non-parallel to the loading direction so that their fracture strength can be tested. A nano-fabrication approach, which involves e-beam lithography and templated electroplating, as well as two-photon lithography, was utilized, which enabled precise control of the initial microstructure control. Experimentally determined stress-strain relationships were enhanced by in-situ SEM observations coupled with TEM microstructural characterization of the same samples before and after deformation (irradiated and as-fabricated) and atomistic (MD) modeling. A comprehensive suite of experiments was conducted to quantitatively assess the key parameters for He bubble nucleation and growth by independently varying the sink strength, sink proximity, and He implantation temperature and dose. The implantations were conducted at Sandia and Los Alamos National Labs (CINT). Nano structuress containing He-enriched interfaces and irradiation-damaged microstructure were tested under uniaxial tension to assess embrittlement, resulting boundary strength, and deformation mechanisms. Results of this work helped identify which types of interfaces are particularly resilient against radiation damage.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Tailoring additive manufacturing to optimize dynamic properties in 316L stainless steel

With the advent of additive manufacturing, manipulation of typical microstructural elements such as grain size, texture, and defect densities is now possible at a faster time scale. While the processing–structure–property relationship in additive manufactured metals has been well studied over the past decade, little work has been done in understanding how this process affects the dynamic behavior of materials. We postulate that additive manufacturing can be used to alter the material microstructure and used to enhance its dynamic strength. In this work, 316L stainless steel (SS) was manufactured via selected laser melting and its microstructure was altered through changing build parameters like laser power, speed, and hatch spacing systematically. These samples were then subjected to spall recovery experiments to measure the spall strength and quantify the amount of damage as a function of build parameters. By mapping the spall strength as a function of build parameters, this work demonstrated that indeed additive manufacturing can be used to tailor the spall strength of 316L SS. This work also determined the optimum build parameters (laser power=195W; scanning speed=1083mm/s; hatch spacing=0.09mm; layer thickness=0.02mm) to obtain the highest spall strength and the least amount of total damage in 316L SS. Microstructural characterization of the pre- and post-mortem samples revealed that increased grain average misorientation and textural index were the main driving force behind this higher spall strength. This work aims to enhance microstructural engineering techniques to design materials with greater resistance to dynamic shock loading.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

A dimensionless number for high-throughput design of multi-principal element alloys in directed energy deposition

The present study demonstrates the development of a dimensionless number to predict the build height in the additive manufacturing technique of directed energy deposition (DED). The build height can also be used to estimate the dendrite arm spacing and, thus, the cooling rate in the fabrication of samples. A baseline sample, 316L stainless steel, was used to fit the build height to the dimensionless number. A range of process parameters, including laser power, laser feed rate, powder flow rate, layer thickness, and hatch spacing, were varied. Based upon dendrite arm spacing, the estimated cooling rate varied between 102 and 104 K/s. Using the fitted relationship for the stainless steel, high-throughput (HT) processing of multi-principal element alloys (MPEAs) was performed. For this study, HT is the ability to fabricate a batch of 25 bulk samples (∼1 cm3) with different compositions within a 5-h period with ±10 at. % accuracy. A range of compositions using in situ alloying of elemental powders in the Fe–Ni–Cr–Mo system were made. The MPEAs' build height followed the same relationship to the dimensionless number as the 316L alloy. The dimensionless number predicts both macro and meso-scale features in HT processing, thus offering a design tool for choosing process parameters in DED additive manufacturing. Also, the ability to control or increase cooling rates can enhance the ability to promote metastability as well as control meso-scale chemical distributions of alloy samples.

Islam, Zahabul (ORCID:0000000169613209)↗
DOE OSTI2020

Effective J -factors for Milky Way dwarf spheroidal galaxies with velocity-dependent annihilation

We calculate the effective J-factors, which determine the strength of indirect detection signals from dark matter annihilation, for 25 dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSphs). We consider several well-motivated assumptions for the relative velocity dependence of the dark matter annihilation cross section: σAv: s -wave (velocity independent), p -wave (σ A v∝v 2 ), d-wave (σ A v∝v 4 ), and Sommerfeld-enhancement in the Coulomb limit (σ A v∝1/v). As a result we provide the largest and most updated sample of J-factors for velocity-dependent annihilation models. For each scenario, we use Fermi-LAT gamma-ray data to constrain the annihilation cross section. Due to the assumptions made in our gamma-ray data analysis, our bounds are comparable to previous bounds on both the p-wave and Sommerfeld-enhanced cross sections using dSphs. Finally, our bounds on the d-wave cross section are the first such bounds using indirect detection data.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluating various composite sampling modes for detecting pathogenic SARS-CoV-2 virus in raw sewage

Inadequate sampling approaches to wastewater analyses can introduce biases, leading to inaccurate results such as false negatives and significant over- or underestimation of average daily viral concentrations, due to the sporadic nature of viral input. To address this challenge, we conducted a field trial within the University of Tennessee residence halls, employing different composite sampling modes that encompassed different time intervals (1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, and 24 h) across various time windows (morning, afternoon, evening, and late-night). Our primary objective was to identify the optimal approach for generating representative composite samples of SARS-CoV-2 from raw wastewater. Utilizing reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction, we quantified the levels of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) RNA in raw sewage. Our findings consistently demonstrated that PMMoV RNA, an indicator virus of human fecal contamination in water environment, exhibited higher abundance and lower variability compared to pathogenic SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Significantly, both SARS-CoV-2 and PMMoV RNA exhibited greater variability in 1 h individual composite samples throughout the entire sampling period, contrasting with the stability observed in other time-based composite samples. Through a comprehensive analysis of various composite sampling modes using the Quade Nonparametric ANCOVA test with date, PMMoV concentration and site as covariates, we concluded that employing a composite sampler during a focused 6 h morning window for pathogenic SARS-CoV-2 RNA is a pragmatic and cost-effective strategy for achieving representative composite samples within a single day in wastewater-based epidemiology applications. This method has the potential to significantly enhance the accuracy and reliability of data collected at the community level, thereby contributing to more informed public health decision-making during a pandemic.

sampling timing↗
DOE OSTI2023

Latent Neural ODE for Integrating Multi-Timescale Measurements in Smart Distribution Grids

Under a smart grid paradigm, there has been an increase in sensor installations to enhance situational awareness. The measurements from these sensors can be leveraged for real-time monitoring, control, and protection. However, these measurements are typically irregularly sampled. These measure-ments may also be intermittent due to communication bandwidth limitations. To tackle this problem, this paper proposes a novel latent neural ordinary differential equations (LODE) approach to aggregate the unevenly sampled multivariate time-series measurements. The proposed approach is flexible in performing both imputations and predictions while being computationally efficient. Simulation results on IEEE 37 bus test systems illustrate the efficiency of the proposed approach.

multi time-scale measurements↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Progress on the Organic and Inorganic Modules of the Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor, a Next Generation Complete Water Analysis System for Crewed Vehicles

The Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor (SWIM) is a joint collaboration to develop an instrument platform that will perform in-flight measurements and deliver a more complete picture of water quality to decision makers. For exploration missions, returned water samples will not be an option, so spacecraft and habitats will need to be equipped with advanced water monitoring capabilities. Eventually, missions to the moon, Mars, and beyond should be equipped with analytical capabilities roughly analogous to those found in terrestrial labs. Based on what we know about current and future spacecraft environments, SWIM will seek to provide enhanced analytical capability that enables NASA to confidently send astronauts on distant missions without the possibility of returned water samples. The SWIM architecture can be broken down in an Organic Water Module (OWM) and an Inorganic Water Module (IWM), independent of each other but can be flown together if desired; an integrated system may share some commonality, e.g., single sample injection, sampling consumables, waste, etc. Each of these main modules can be broken down further into separation (if required) and detection modules. And, each separation module can be paired with one or more detection module depending on mission, spacecraft, customer needs, and size/mass/power constraints. This paper discusses the research and development progress toward the goal of a total water analysis system. For OWM, one of the analysis technologies that the SWIM team have been developing is a liquid-injection gas chromatograph mass spectrometer system; these systems are the workhorses of analytical chemistry laboratories world-wide. For IWM, the team is exploring a number of technologies ranging from traditional liquid chromatography technologies (e.g. ion chromatography, capillary electrophoresis) to flight-heritage technology such as ion-specific electrodes.

Stuart J Pensinger↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Progress on the Organic and Inorganic Modules of the Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor, a Next Generation Complete Water Analysis System for Crewed Vehicles

The Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor (SWIM) is a joint collaboration to develop an instrument platform that will perform in-flight measurements and deliver a more complete picture of water quality to decision makers. For exploration missions, returned water samples will not be an option, so spacecraft and habitats will need to be equipped with advanced water monitoring capabilities. Eventually, missions to the moon, Mars, and beyond should be equipped with analytical capabilities roughly analogous to those found in terrestrial labs. Based on what we know about current and future spacecraft environments, SWIM will seek to provide enhanced analytical capability that enables NASA to confidently send astronauts on distant missions without the possibility of returned water samples. The SWIM architecture can be broken down in an Organic Water Module (OWM) and an Inorganic Water Module (IWM), independent of each other but can be flown together if desired; an integrated system may share some commonality, e.g., single sample injection, sampling consumables, waste, etc. Each of these main modules can be broken down further into separation (if required) and detection modules. And, each separation module can be paired with one or more detection module depending on mission, spacecraft, customer needs, and size/mass/power constraints. This paper discusses the research and development progress toward the goal of a total water analysis system. For OWM, one of the analysis technologies that the SWIM team have been developing is a liquid-injection gas chromatograph mass spectrometer system; these systems are the workhorses of analytical chemistry laboratories world-wide. For IWM, the team is exploring a number of technologies ranging from traditional liquid chromatography technologies (e.g. ion chromatography, capillary electrophoresis) to flight-heritage technology such as ion-specific electrodes.

Stuart J. Pensinger↗
NASA NTRS2023

Progress on the Organic and Inorganic Modules of the Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor, a Next Generation Complete Water Analysis System for Crewed Vehicles

The Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor (SWIM) is a joint collaboration to develop an instrument platform that will perform in-flight measurements and deliver a more complete picture of water quality to decision makers. For exploration missions, returned water samples will not be an option, so spacecraft and habitats will need to be equipped with advanced water monitoring capabilities. Eventually, missions to the moon, Mars, and beyond should be equipped with analytical capabilities roughly analogous to those found in terrestrial labs. Based on what we know about current and future spacecraft environments, SWIM will seek to provide enhanced analytical capability that enables NASA to confidently send astronauts on distant missions without the possibility of returned water samples. The SWIM architecture can be broken down in an Organic Water Module (OWM) and an Inorganic Water Module (IWM), independent of each other but can be flown together if desired; an integrated system may share some commonality, e.g., single sample injection, sampling consumables, waste, etc. Each of these main modules can be broken down further into separation (if required) and detection modules. And, each separation module can be paired with one or more detection module depending on mission, spacecraft, customer needs, and size/mass/power constraints. This paper discusses the research and development progress toward the goal of a total water analysis system. For OWM, one of the analysis technologies that the SWIM team have been developing is a liquid-injection gas chromatograph mass spectrometer system; these systems are the workhorses of analytical chemistry laboratories world-wide. For IWM, the team is exploring a number of technologies ranging from traditional liquid chromatography technologies (e.g. ion chromatography, capillary electrophoresis) to flight-heritage technology such as ion-specific electrodes.

Stuart J Pensinger↗
NASA NTRS2023

Progress on the Organic and Inorganic Modules of the Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor, a Next Generation Complete Water Analysis System for Crewed Vehicles

The Spacecraft Water Impurity Monitor (SWIM) is a joint collaboration to develop an instrument platform that will perform in-flight measurements and deliver a more complete picture of water quality to decision makers. For exploration missions, returned water samples will not be an option, so spacecraft and habitats will need to be equipped with advanced water monitoring capabilities. Eventually, missions to the moon, Mars, and beyond should be equipped with analytical capabilities roughly analogous to those found in terrestrial labs. Based on what we know about current and future spacecraft environments, SWIM will seek to provide enhanced analytical capability that enables NASA to confidently send astronauts on distant missions without the possibility of returned water samples. The SWIM architecture can be broken down in an Organic Water Module (OWM) and an Inorganic Water Module (IWM), independent of each other but can be flown together if desired; an integrated system may share some commonality, e.g., single sample injection, sampling consumables, waste, etc. Each of these main modules can be broken down further into separation (if required) and detection modules. And, each separation module can be paired with one or more detection module depending on mission, spacecraft, customer needs, and size/mass/power constraints. This paper discusses the research and development progress toward the goal of a total water analysis system. For OWM, one of the analysis technologies that the SWIM team have been developing is a liquid-injection gas chromatograph mass spectrometer system; these systems are the workhorses of analytical chemistry laboratories world-wide. For IWM, the team is exploring a number of technologies ranging from traditional liquid chromatography technologies (e.g. ion chromatography, capillary electrophoresis) to flight-heritage technology such as ion-specific electrodes.

Stuart Pensinger↗