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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Large-scale inflatable structures for tunnel protection: a review of the Resilient Tunnel Plug project

The protection of underground civil infrastructure continues to be a high priority for transportation and transit security agencies. In particular, rail transit tunnels running under bodies of water are susceptible to disruptions due to flooding caused by extraordinary climatic events such as hurricanes or other events resulting from human activities. Several events have taken place in the past decades that have demonstrated the need to mitigate vulnerabilities or, at least, minimize the consequences of catastrophic events. Although it is impossible to prevent all situations that can lead to flooding, damage can be substantially decreased by reducing the area affected by the event. To minimize the effects of an event, a possible approach is to compartmentalize the tunnel system by creating temporary barriers that can contain the propagation of flooding until a more permanent solution can be implemented. One way to create a temporary barrier is by the deployment of a large-scale inflatable structure, also known as an inflatable plug. In such an application, the inflatable structure is prepared for placement, either permanently or temporally, and maintained ready for deployment, inflation, and pressurization when needed. The internal plug pressure imparts a normal force against the tunnel wall surface with the friction between the plug and tunnel surfaces opposing axial movement of the plug. The sealing effectiveness depends on the ability of the inflatable structure to self-deploy and fit, without human intervention, to the intricacies of the perimeter of the conduit being sealed. Primary design constraints include having the plug stowed away from the dynamic envelope of the trains and being able to withhold the pressure of the flooding water. This work presents a compilation of the main aspects of the activities completed for the development of large-scale inflatable structures as part of the Resilient Tunnel Plug (RTP) Project. The main test results and lessons learned are presented to demonstrate the viability of implementing large-scale inflatable plugs for the containment of flooding in rail tunnels systems. Over 400 coupon and specimen tests, 200 reduced scale tests, and 100 full-scale tests were conducted to demonstrate the efficacy of the design of different prototypes over a 10-year research and development project. The culmination of the work was 12 large-scale flooding demonstrations where the inflatable tunnel plug was shown able to be deployed remotely and withstand a simulated flooding event.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2013

Small-Scale Spray Releases: Additional Aerosol Test Results

One of the events postulated in the hazard analysis at the Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP) and other U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) nuclear facilities is a breach in process piping that produces aerosols with droplet sizes in the respirable range. The current approach for predicting the size and concentration of aerosols produced in a spray leak involves extrapolating from correlations reported in the literature. These correlations are based on results obtained from small engineered spray nozzles using pure liquids with Newtonian fluid behavior. The narrow ranges of physical properties on which the correlations are based do not cover the wide range of slurries and viscous materials that will be processed in the WTP and across processing facilities in the DOE complex. To expand the data set upon which the WTP accident and safety analyses were based, an aerosol spray leak testing program was conducted by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). PNNL’s test program addressed two key technical areas to improve the WTP methodology (Larson and Allen 2010). The first technical area was to quantify the role of slurry particles in small breaches where slurry particles may plug the hole and prevent high-pressure sprays. The results from an effort to address this first technical area can be found in Mahoney et al. (2012a). The second technical area was to determine aerosol droplet size distribution and total droplet volume from prototypic breaches and fluids, including sprays from larger breaches and sprays of slurries for which literature data are largely absent. To address the second technical area, the testing program collected aerosol generation data at two scales, commonly referred to as small-scale and large-scale. The small-scale testing and resultant data are described in Mahoney et al. (2012b) and the large-scale testing and resultant data are presented in Schonewill et al. (2012). In tests at both scales, simulants were used to mimic the relevant physical properties projected for actual WTP process streams.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2013

CO 2 Sequestration Capacity and Associated Aspects of the Most Promising Geologic Formations in the Rocky Mountain Region: Local-Scale Analyses

The purpose of this report is to provide a summary of individual local-­scale CCS site characterization studies conducted in Colorado, New Mexico and Utah. These site-­ specific characterization analyses were performed as part of the “Characterization of Most Promising Sequestration Formations in the Rocky Mountain Region” (RMCCS) project. The primary objective of these local-­scale analyses is to provide a basis for regional-­scale characterization efforts within each state. Specifically, limits on time and funding will typically inhibit CCS projects from conducting high-­ resolution characterization of a state-­sized region, but smaller (< 10,000 km 2 ) site analyses are usually possible, and such can provide insight regarding limiting factors for the regional-­scale geology. For the RMCCS project, the outcomes of these local-­scale studies provide a starting point for future local-­scale site characterization efforts in the Rocky Mountain region.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2014

Recovery Act: Oxy-Combustion Technology Development for Industrial-Scale Boiler Applications

Alstom Power Inc. (Alstom), under U.S. DOE/NETL Cooperative Agreement No. DE-NT0005290, is conducting a development program to generate detailed technical information needed for application of oxy-combustion technology. The program is designed to provide the necessary information and understanding for the next step of large-scale commercial demonstration of oxy combustion in tangentially fired boilers and to accelerate the commercialization of this technology. The main project objectives include: • Design and develop an innovative oxyfuel system for existing tangentially-fired boiler units that minimizes overall capital investment and operating costs. • Evaluate performance of oxyfuel tangentially fired boiler systems in pilot scale tests at Alstom’s 15 MWth tangentially fired Boiler Simulation Facility (BSF). • Address technical gaps for the design of oxyfuel commercial utility boilers by focused testing and improvement of engineering and simulation tools. • Develop the design, performance and costs for a demonstration scale oxyfuel boiler and auxiliary systems. • Develop the design and costs for both industrial and utility commercial scale reference oxyfuel boilers and auxiliary systems that are optimized for overall plant performance and cost. • Define key design considerations and develop general guidelines for application of results to utility and different industrial applications. The project was initiated in October 2008 and the scope extended in 2010 under an ARRA award. The project completion date was April 30, 2014. Central to the project is 15 MWth testing in the BSF, which provided in-depth understanding of oxy-combustion under boiler conditions, detailed data for improvement of design tools, and key information for application to commercial scale oxy-fired boiler design. Eight comprehensive 15 MWth oxy-fired test campaigns were performed with different coals, providing detailed data on combustion, emissions, and thermal behavior over a matrix of fuels, oxyprocess variables and boiler design parameters. Significant improvement of CFD modeling tools and validation against 15 MWth experimental data has been completed. Oxy-boiler demonstration and large reference designs have been developed, supported with the information and knowledge gained from the 15 MWth testing. The results from the 15 MWth testing in the BSF and complimentary bench-scale testing are addressed in this volume (Volume II) of the final report. The results of the modeling efforts (Volume III) and the oxy boiler design efforts (Volume IV) are reported in separate volumes.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2015

Pilot-Scale Biorefinery: Sustainable Transport Fuels from Biomass via Integrated Pyrolysis and Catalytic Hydroconversion - Wastewater Cleanup by Catalytic Hydrothermal Gasification

DOE-EE Bioenergy Technologies Office has set forth several goals to increase the use of bioenergy and bioproducts derived from renewable resources. One of these goals is to facilitate the implementation of the biorefinery. The biorefinery will include the production of liquid fuels, power and, in some cases, products. The integrated biorefinery should stand-alone from an economic perspective with fuels and power driving the economy of scale while the economics/profitability of the facility will be dependent on existing market conditions. UOP LLC proposed to demonstrate a fast pyrolysis based integrated biorefinery. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has expertise in an important technology area of interest to UOP for use in their pyrolysis-based biorefinery. This CRADA project provides the supporting technology development and demonstration to allow incorporation of this technology into the biorefinery. PNNL developed catalytic hydrothermal gasification (CHG) for use with aqueous streams within the pyrolysis biorefinery. These aqueous streams included the aqueous phase separated from the fast pyrolysis bio-oil and the aqueous byproduct streams formed in the hydroprocessing of the bio-oil to finished products. The purpose of this project was to demonstrate a technically and economically viable technology for converting renewable biomass feedstocks to sustainable and fungible transportation fuels. To demonstrate the technology, UOP constructed and operated a pilot-scale biorefinery that processed one dry ton per day of biomass using fast pyrolysis. Specific objectives of the project were to: The anticipated outcomes of the project were a validated process technology, a range of validated feedstocks, product property and Life Cycle data, and technical and operating data upon which to base the design of a full-scale biorefinery. The anticipated long-term outcomes from successful commercialization of the technology were: (1) the replacement of a significant fraction of petroleum based fuels with advanced biofuels, leading to increased energy security and decreased carbon footprint; and (2) establishment of a new biofuel industry segment, leading to the creation of U.S. engineering, manufacturing, construction, operations and agricultural jobs. PNNL development of CHG progressed at two levels. Initial tests were made in the laboratory in both mini-scale and bench-scale continuous flow reactor systems. Following positive results, the next level of evaluation was in the scaled-up engineering development system, which was operated at PNNL.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Intermediate Scale Laboratory Testing to Understand Mechanisms of Capillary and Dissolution Trapping during Injection and Post-Injection of CO 2 in Heterogeneous Geological Formations

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) represents a technology aimed to reduce atmospheric loading of CO 2 from power plants and heavy industries by injecting it into deep geological formations, such as saline aquifers. A number of trapping mechanisms contribute to effective and secure storage of the injected CO 2 in supercritical fluid phase (scCO 2 ) in the formation over the long term. The primary trapping mechanisms are structural, residual, dissolution and mineralization. Knowledge gaps exist on how the heterogeneity of the formation manifested at all scales from the pore to the site scales affects trapping and parameterization of contributing mechanisms in models. An experimental and modeling study was conducted to fill these knowledge gaps. Experimental investigation of fundamental processes and mechanisms in field settings is not possible as it is not feasible to fully characterize the geologic heterogeneity at all relevant scales and gathering data on migration, trapping and dissolution of scCO 2 . Laboratory experiments using scCO 2 under ambient conditions are also not feasible as it is technically challenging and cost prohibitive to develop large, two- or three-dimensional test systems with controlled high pressures to keep the scCO 2 as a liquid. Hence, an innovative approach that used surrogate fluids in place of scCO 2 and formation brine in multi-scale, synthetic aquifers test systems ranging in scales from centimeter to meter scale developed used. New modeling algorithms were developed to capture the processes controlled by the formation heterogeneity, and they were tested using the data from the laboratory test systems. The results and findings are expected to contribute toward better conceptual models, future improvements to DOE numerical codes, more accurate assessment of storage capacities, and optimized placement strategies. This report presents the experimental and modeling methods and research results.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2016

EMAPS: An Efficient Multiscale Approach to Plasma Systems with Non-MHD Scale Effects

Global interactions of energetic ions with magnetoplasmas and neutral gases lie at the core of many space and laboratory plasma phenomena ranging from solar wind entry into and transport within planetary magnetospheres and exospheres to fast-ion driven instabilities in fusion devices to astrophysics-in-lab experiments. The ability of computational models to properly account for physical effects that underlie such interactions, namely ion kinetic, ion cyclotron, Hall, collisional and ionization processes is important for the success and planning of experimental research in plasma physics. Understanding the physics of energetic ions, in particular their nonlinear resonance interactions with Alfvén waves, is central to improving the heating performance of magnetically confined plasmas for future energy generation. Fluid models are not adequate for high-beta plasmas as they cannot fully capture ion kinetic and cyclotron physics (e.g., ion behavior in the presence of magnetic nulls, shock structures, plasma interpenetration, etc.). Recent results from global reconnection simulations show that even in a MHD-like regime there may be significant differences between kinetic and MHD simulations. Therefore, kinetic modeling becomes essential for meeting modern day challenges in plasma physics. The hybrid approximation is an intermediate approximation between the fluid and fully kinetic approximations. It eliminates light waves, removes the electron inertial temporal and spatial scales from the problem and enables full-orbit ion kinetics. As a result, hybrid codes have become effective tools for exploring ion-scale driven phenomena associated with ion beams, shocks, reconnection and turbulence that control the large-scale behavior of laboratory and space magnetoplasmas. A number of numerical issues, however, make three-dimensional (3D) large-scale hybrid simulations of inhomogeneous magnetized plasmas prohibitively expensive or even impossible. To resolve these difficulties we have developed a novel Event-driven Multiscale Asynchronous Parallel Simulation (EMAPS) technology that replaces time stepping with self-adaptive update events. Local calculations are carried out only on an “as needed basis”. EMAPS (i) guarantees accurate and stable processing of physical variables in time accurate simulations, and (ii) eliminates unnecessary computation. Applying EMAPS to the hybrid model has resulted in the development of a unique parallel code, dimension-independent (compile-time-configurable) HYPERS (Hybrid Parallel Event-Resolved Simulator) that scales to hundreds of thousands of parallel processors. HYPERS advances electromagnetic fields and particles asynchronously on time scales determined by local physical laws and mesh properties. To achieve high computational accuracy in complex device geometries, HYPERS employs high-fidelity Cartesian grids with masked conductive cells. The HYPERS model includes multiple ion species, energy and momentum conserving ion-ion collisions, and provides a number of approximations for plasma resistivity and vacuum regions. Both local and periodic boundary conditions are allowed. The HYPERS solver preserves zero divergence of magnetic field. The project has demonstrated HYPERS capabilities on a number of applications of interest to fusion and astrophysical plasma physics applications listed below. 1. Theta-pinch formation of FRCs The formation, spontaneous spin-up, and stability of theta-pinch formed field-reversed configurations have been studied self-consistently in 3D. The end-to-end hybrid simulations reveal poloidal profiles of implosion-driven fast toroidal plasma rotation and demonstrate three discharge regimes as a function of experimental parameters: the decaying stable configuration, the tilt unstable configuration, and the nonlinear evolution of a fast growing tearing mode. 2. FRC collisions with magnetic mirrors Interactions of fast plasma streams and objects with magnetic obstacles (dipoles, mirrors, etc) lie at the core of many space and laboratory plasma phenomena ranging from magnetoshells and solar wind interactions with planetary magnetospheres to compact fusion plasmas. HYPERS simulations are compared with data from the MSX experiment (LANL) that focuses on the physics of magnetized collisionless shocks through the acceleration and subsequent stagnation of FRC plasmoids against a strong magnetic mirrors and flux-conserving boundaries. 3. Exploding magnetoplasmas Results from hybrid simulations of two experiments at the LAPD and Nevada Terawatt Facility are discussed where short-pulse lasers are used to ablate solid targets to produce plasmas that expand across external magnetic fields. The first simulation recreates flutelike density striations observed at the leading edge of a carbon plasma and predicts an early destruction of the magnetic cavity in agreement with experimental evidence. In the second simulation a polyethylene target is ablated into a mixture of protons and carbon ions. A mechanism is demonstrated that allows protons to penetrate the magnetic field in the form of a collimated flow. The results are compared to experimental data and single-fluid MHD simulations. The EMAPS framework has the potential for wide application in many other engineering and scientific fields, such as climate models, biological systems, electronic devices, seismic events, oil reservation simulators that all involve advancing solutions of partial differential equations in time where the rate of activity can be adapted widely over the spatial domain depending on locally space/time phenomena (“events”).

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

Bench-scale Development of an Advanced Solid Sorbent-based CO 2 Capture Process for Coal-fired Power Plants

It is increasingly clear that CO 2 capture and sequestration (CCS) must play a critical role in curbing worldwide CO 2 emissions to the atmosphere. Development of these technologies to cost-effectively remove CO 2 from coal-fired power plants is very important to mitigating the impact these power plants have within the world’s power generation portfolio. Currently, conventional CO 2 capture technologies, such as aqueous-monoethanolamine based solvent systems, are prohibitively expensive and if implemented could result in a 75 to 100% increase in the cost of electricity for consumers worldwide. Solid sorbent CO 2 capture processes – such as RTI’s Advanced Solid Sorbent CO 2 , Capture Process – are promising alternatives to conventional, liquid solvents. Supported amine sorbents – of the nature RTI has developed – are particularly attractive due to their high CO 2 loadings, low heat capacities, reduced corrosivity/volatility and the potential to reduce the regeneration energy needed to carry out CO 2 capture. Previous work in this area has failed to adequately address various technology challenges such as sorbent stability and regenerability, sorbent scale-up, improved physical strength and attrition-resistance, proper heat management and temperature control, proper solids handling and circulation control, as well as the proper coupling of process engineering advancements that are tailored for a promising sorbent technology. The remaining challenges for these sorbent processes have provided the framework for the project team’s research and development and target for advancing the technology beyond lab- and bench-scale testing. Under a cooperative agreement with the US Department of Energy, and part of NETL’s CO 2 Capture Program, RTI has led an effort to address and mitigate the challenges associated with solid sorbent CO 2 capture. The overall objective of this project was to mitigate the technical and economic risks associated with the scale-up of solid sorbent-based CO 2 capture processes, enabling subsequent larger pilot demonstrations and ultimately commercial deployment. An integrated development approach has been a key focus of this project in which process development, sorbent development, and economic analyses have informed each of the other development processes. Development efforts have focused on improving the performance stability of sorbent candidates, refining process engineering and design, and evaluating the viability of the technology through detailed economic analyses. Sorbent advancements have led to a next generation, commercially-viable CO 2 capture sorbent exhibiting performance stability in various gas environments and a physically strong fluidizable form. The team has reduced sorbent production costs and optimized the production process and scale-up of PEI-impregnated, fluidizable sorbents. Refinement of the process engineering and design, as well as the construction and operation of a bench-scale research unit has demonstrated promising CO 2 capture performance under simulated coal-fired flue gas conditions. Parametric testing has shown how CO 2 capture performance is impacted by changing process variables, such as Adsorber temperature, Regenerator temperature, superficial flue gas velocity, solids circulation rate, CO 2 partial pressure in the Regenerator, and many others. Long-term testing has generated data for the project team to set the process conditions needed to operate a solids-based system for optimal performance, with continuous 90% CO 2 capture, and no operational interruptions. Data collected from all phases of testing has been used to develop a detailed techno-economic assessment of RTI’s technology. These detailed analyses show that RTI’s technology has significant economic advantages over current amine scrubbing and potential to achieve the DOE’s Carbon Capture Program’s goal of >90% CO 2 capture rate at a cost of < $40/T-CO 2 captured by 2025. Through this integrated technology development approach, the project team has advanced RTI’s CO 2 capture technology to TRL-4 (nearly TRL-5, with the missing variable being testing on actual, coal-fired flue gas), according to the DOE/FE definitions for Technology Readiness Levels. At a broader level, this project has advanced the whole of the solid sorbent CO 2 capture field, with advancements in process engineering and design, technical risk mitigation, sorbent scale-up optimization, and an understanding of the commercial viability and applicability of solid sorbent CO 2 capture technologies for the U.S. existing fleet of coal-fired power plants.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2016

Utility-Scale Solar 2015: An Empirical Analysis of Project Cost, Performance, and Pricing Trends in the United States

The utility-scale solar sector—defined here to include any ground-mounted photovoltaic (“PV”), concentrating photovoltaic (“CPV”), or concentrating solar power (“CSP”) project that is larger than 5 MWAC in capacity—has led the overall U.S. solar market in terms of installed capacity since 2012. It is expected to maintain its market-leading position for at least another five years, driven in part by December 2015’s three-year extension of the 30% federal investment tax credit (“ITC”) through 2019 (coupled with a favorable switch to a “start construction” rather than a “placed in service” eligibility requirement, and a gradual phase down of the credit to 10% by 2022). In fact, in 2016 alone, the utility-scale sector is projected to install more than twice as much new capacity as it ever has previously in a single year. This unprecedented boom makes it difficult, yet more important than ever, to stay abreast of the latest utility-scale market developments and trends. This report—the fourth edition in an ongoing annual series—is intended to help meet this need, by providing in-depth, annually updated, data-driven analysis of the utility-scale solar project fleet in the United States. Drawing on empirical project-level data from a wide range of sources, this report analyzes not just installed project costs or prices—i.e., the traditional realm of most solar economic analyses—but also operating costs, capacity factors, and power purchase agreement (“PPA”) prices from a large sample of utility-scale solar projects throughout the United States. Given its current dominance in the market, utility-scale PV also dominates much of this report, though data from CPV and CSP projects are also presented where appropriate.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Scaling Studies for Advanced High Temperature Reactor Concepts, Final Technical Report: October 2014—December 2017

Computer simulations of nuclear reactor thermal-hydraulic phenomena are often used in the design and licensing of nuclear reactor systems. In order to assess the accuracy of these computer simulations, computer codes and methods are often validated against experimental data. This experimental data must be of sufficiently high quality in order to conduct a robust validation exercise. In addition, this experimental data is generally collected at experimental facilities that are of a smaller scale than the reactor systems that are being simulated due to cost considerations. Therefore, smaller scale test facilities must be designed and constructed in such a fashion to ensure that the prototypical behavior of a particular nuclear reactor system is preserved. The work completed through this project has resulted in scaling analyses and conceptual design development for a test facility capable of collecting code validation data for the following high temperature gas reactor systems and events— 1. Passive natural circulation core cooling system, 2. pebble bed gas reactor concept, 3. General Atomics Energy Multiplier Module reactor, and 4. prismatic block design steam-water ingress event. In the event that code validation data for these systems or events is needed in the future, significant progress in the design of an appropriate integral-type test facility has already been completed as a result of this project. Where applicable, the next step would be to begin the detailed design development and material procurement. As part of this project applicable scaling analyses were completed and test facility design requirements developed. Conceptual designs were developed for the implementation of these design requirements at the Oregon State University (OSU) High Temperature Test Facility (HTTF). The original HTTF is based on a ¼-scale model of a high temperature gas reactor concept with the capability for both forced and natural circulation flow through a prismatic core with an electrical heat source. The peak core region temperature capability is 1400°C. As part of this project, an inventory of test facilities that could be used for these experimental programs was completed. Several of these facilities showed some promise, however, upon further investigation it became clear that only the OSU HTTF had the power and/or peak temperature limits that would allow for the experimental programs envisioned herein. Thus the conceptual design and feasibility study development focused on examining the feasibility of configuring the current HTTF to collect validation data for these experimental programs. In addition to the scaling analyses and conceptual design development, a test plan was developed for the envisioned modified test facility. This test plan included a discussion on an appropriate shakedown test program as well as the specific matrix tests. Finally, a feasibility study was completed to determine the cost and schedule considerations that would be important to any test program developed to investigate these designs and events.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Small Business Voucher Program: Scaling-Up of Bio-Based C5 Building Block Production: Cooperative Research and Development Final Report, CRADA Number CRD-16-00611

Visolis, Inc. is an early stage industrial biotechnology company developing next generation of processes for producing building blocks for bulk polymers and fuels. The company is developing low-cost routes to the chemicals of the future in support of DOE, EERE and BETO goals to grow the U.S. bioeconomy. NREL has capabilities in scale-up of fermentation processes from bench top through pilot scales and also has expertise and technologies related to production of lignocellulosic sugars from cellulosic feedstocks. NREL's Integrated Biorefinery Research Facility (IBRF) houses multiple fermentation vessels/systems ranging in size from 0.5 to 9,000 L along with ancillary capabilities in compositional analysis, separations, and purification. NREL's role will be to scale-up the Visolis process to produce an intermediate product, mevalonic acid, from both dextrose and biomass derived sugars. The goals of the project are to: 1) transfer and reproduce one of Visolis's proprietary fermentation processes at bench top and pilot scale at NREL's IBRF using dextrose as the feedstock, 2) carry out bench-scale fermentations using Visolis's organism and cellulosic sugars, and 3) produce mevalonic acid from the bench top and pilot scale runs for catalyst lifetime testing and conversion to isoprene.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2018

The Low-Mass Limit: Dark Matter Detectors with eV-Scale Energy Resolution

The SuperCDMS SNOLAB experiment will be a 20-kg scale Si and Ge direct dark matter detection experiment designed to probe down to 300 MeV in dark matter (DM) mass through DM-nucleus scattering and 500 keV in DM electron scattering. In order to reach these low masses with appreciable sensitivity to dark matter, it needs to achieve very low energy resolution ($\le 10$ ev) for nuclear recoils in both detector materials, which will be achieved using a new detector design and operating mode, CDMS HV. This detector is designed to operate at a bias of 100V to convert charges liberated in our detector targets to into phonon energy in order to resolve individual electron-hole pairs. This has never before been achieved in a kg-scale detector. In this thesis, I cover three elements of the design of the CDMS HV detectors. I discuss the detector physics controlling how charges and phonons are generated in our detector crystals, comparing theory to results of recent experiments carried out at Stanford. I move on to describe the operating principles of our phonon-mediated charge readout, as well as the design of the CDMS HV detector. I then describe the performance tests of early CDMS HV prototypes in conjunction with the SuperCDMS SNOLAB electronics, and discuss the path towards achieving single electron-hole pair resolving detectors at the kg-scale given the performance obtained thus far. As a result of these tests, we were able to refine our noise and sensor dynamics models, and develop new metrics for diagnosing non-ideal sources of noise to aid in reducing coupling of the external environment to our detectors. In order to study the microphysics of phonon and charge production in our target crystals, we fabricated a number of gram-scale devices with various sensor designs in order to separate sensor and environmental effects from intrinsic crystal properties. These devices provided the first successful demonstrating of using voltage to amplify charge energ y by production of phonons (the Neganov-Trofimov-Luke effect! ) in order to resolve electron-hole pairs, and opened up a new regime of dark matter and photon science at the gram-scale that we are just beginning to explore. A first dark matter search was carried out with one of these gram-scale devices, producing world-leading limits on electron-recoiling dark matter between 0.5 and 5 MeV in dark matter mass for multiple form factors. This device achieved a phonon resolution of 10~eV, allowing a single gram-day of exposure to rival kg-days of exposure in the competing liquid-noble based electron-recoil search.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2018

Lab-Scale Development of a Solid Sorbent for CO 2 Capture Process for Coal-Fired Power Plants

It is increasingly clear that CO 2 capture and sequestration (CCS) must play a critical role in curbing worldwide CO 2 emissions to the atmosphere. Development of these technologies to cost-effectively remove CO 2 from coal-fired power plants is very important to mitigating the impact these power plants have within the world’s power generation portfolio. Currently, conventional CO 2 capture technologies, such as aqueous-monoethanolamine based solvent systems, are prohibitively expensive and if implemented could result in a 75 to 100% increase in the cost of electricity for consumers worldwide. Solid sorbent CO 2 capture processes – such as RTI’s 3rd Generation Solid Sorbent CO 2 Capture Process – are promising alternatives to conventional, liquid solvents. Supported amine sorbents – of the nature RTI has developed – are particularly attractive due to their potential for high CO 2 loadings, excellent stability over multiple cycles, reduced corrosivity/volatility and a potential to reduce the regeneration energy needed to carry out CO 2 capture. The remaining challenges for these sorbent processes have provided the framework for the project team’s research and development and target for advancing the technology beyond lab-scale testing. Previous work in this area has failed to adequately address various technology challenges such as sorbent stability and regenerability, sorbent scale-up, improved physical strength and attrition-resistance, proper heat management and temperature control, proper solids handling, as well as the proper coupling of process engineering advancements that are tailored for a promising sorbent technology. Under a cooperative agreement with the US Department of Energy, and part of NETL’s CO 2 Capture Program, RTI has led an effort to address and mitigate the challenges associated with solid sorbent CO 2 capture. The overall objective of this project was to mitigate the technical and economic risks associated with the performance and scale-up of solid sorbent-based CO 2 capture processes, enabling subsequent larger pilot demonstrations and ultimately commercial deployment. An integrated development approach has been a key focus of this project in which sorbent development, process development, and economic analyses have informed each of the other development processes. Development efforts have focused on developing novel hybrid solids-based CO 2 capture sorbents and improving their performance stability, refining process engineering and design, and evaluating the viability of the technology through detailed economic analyses. Sorbent advancements have led to a next generation, commercially-viable CO 2 capture sorbent exhibiting performance stability in various gas environments and a physically strong fluidizable form. The team has reduced sorbent production costs and optimized the production and scale-up of novel metal-organic framework (MOF) hybrid solids-based CO 2 capture sorbents, fluidizable sorbents. Refinement of the process engineering and design at the lab-scale research unit has demonstrated promising CO 2 capture performance in simulated coal-fired flue gas conditions. Long-term testing has informed the project team on the process conditions needed to operate a solids-based system for optimal performance. Data collected from all phases of testing has been used to develop a detailed techno-economic assessment of RTI’s technology. These detailed analyses show that RTI’s technology has significant economic advantages over current amine scrubbing and potential to achieve the DOE’s Carbon Capture Program’s goal of >90% CO 2 capture rate at a cost of almost $40/tonne CO 2 captured by 2025. Through this integrated technology development approach, the project team has advanced RTI’s 3rd generation CO 2 capture technology to TRL-3, according to the DOE/FE definitions for Technology Readiness Levels. At a broader level, this project has advanced the whole of the solid sorbent CO 2 capture field, with advancements in process engineering and design, technical risk mitigation, sorbent scale-up optimization, and an understanding of the commercial viability and applicability of solid sorbent CO 2 capture technologies for the U.S. existing fleet of coal-fired power plants.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Scale-up of Next Generation Nano-Enhanced Composite Materials for Longer Lasting Consumer Goods

The objective for this project was to create an industrial-scale manufacturing operation for Vertically Aligned Carbon Nanotube Forests (VACNTs), which make up N12 Technologies’ (N12) NanoStitch® product, a prepreg additive that makes advanced composites tougher, lighter, and more durable. This was achieved using University of Dayton Research Institute’s (UDRI) 60-inch Nano Adaptive Hybrid Fabric (NAHF-X) reactor system. N12 had a unique and effective nanomaterial-based product that they were manufacturing on small-scale 1-inch wide substrate machines in Boston, MA. UDRI had a large-scale 60-inch wide nanomaterial growth reactor available for scaling up 2nd party products in Dayton, OH. Thanks to the successful cooperation between both parties, this project resulted in the world’s first industrial-scale continuous VACNT film pilot plant in Dayton, OH with an increase in VACNT supply production rate of >10X. This scale up enabled market validation via testing programs and pilot manufacturing operations with a number of customers.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Theoretical study of various nonlinear phenomena in plasma systems and scaling of magneto-inertial-fusion targets

Plasma physics is an exciting field of study with a wide variety of nonlinear processes that come into play. Examples of such processes include the interaction of small-scale turbulence with large-scale plasma structures and the nonlinear saturation of plasma instabilities, for example those of magneto-hydrodynamical nature. During this Truman LDRD project, I studied a collection of nonlinear problems that are of interest to the field of plasma physics. This LDRD report summarizes four main research accomplishments. First, a new statistical model for describing inhomogeneous drift-wave turbulence inter- acting with zonal flows was developed. This new model includes the effects of nonlinear wave-wave collisions, which are expected to change the spectrum of the underlying DW turbulence and therefore the generation of zonal flows. Second, a new mathematical formalism was proposed to systematically apply the non- linear WKB approximation to general field theories, including those often used in fluid dynamics. This formalism represents an interesting tool for studying physical systems that show an explicit scale separation. Third, a weakly nonlinear model was developed to describe the magneto-Rayleigh-Taylor instability. This instability is of paramount importance to understand as it can reduce the performance of magnetic-inertial-fusion (MIF) platforms. The developed models captures the effects of harmonic generation and saturation of the linear growth of the instability. Finally, a framework was proposed for scaling magneto-inertial fusion (MIF) targets to larger pulsed-power drivers. From this framework, a set of scaling rules were derived that conserve the physical regimes of MIF systems when scaling up in peak current. By doing so, deleterious nonlinear processes that affect MIF performance may be kept at bay.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Energy-Storing Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ for Utility and Industrial-scale Processes (Final Report)

This project leverages work completed under funding from previous U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) projects and other sources of funding around the Cryogenic Carbon Capture Process™ (CCC). The purpose of this project is to further develop a perturbation of the CCC process that stores energy called the Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ Energy Storing (CCC-ES) process. The successful completion of the tasks in this project has prepared the CCC-ES process for scaling and developed initial plans and a feasibility analysis for an engineering-scale or small-commercial scale system that can store at least 10 MWh of energy. The specific areas of work in this project are: (1) Develop a conceptual, site-specific integrated process flow diagram: Sustainable Energy Solutions (SES) developed a conceptual, site-specific plan including a process flow diagram for integrating CCC-ES at a specific location. The proposed system was based on a typical engineering-scale CCC system designed to capture 30-50 metric tonnes of CO 2 per day (TPD), with modifications and additional changes and equipment put in place to add the energy storage element to the system. The 30-50 TPD scale corresponds to the required 10 MWh of stored energy. This task includes updating simulation software for transient analysis. SES also coordinated with the Jim Bridger Power Plant in Point of Rocks, Wyoming to get site-specific data. Using these data, SES completed site-specific preliminary process flow diagrams, estimated capital and operating costs for the CCC-ES system, and used the upgraded software package to estimate the primary figures of merit. (2) Complete a technoeconomic analysis (TEA): SES completed a full-scale TEA of the CCC-ES system to meet specific success criteria. This TEA used process information from the host site selected above. (3) Technology and data gap assessment for the CCC-ES process: As part of the technology gap assessment, SES performed an assessment of the best alternative energy storage solutions including figures of merit and operational strengths and weaknesses. SES then compared the proposed system with a discussion of how it addresses the weaknesses of alternative systems, showing for example a cost of stored energy at less than $50/MWh and with a roundtrip efficiency of greater than 95%. This assessment includes technical and other risk analyses and technology gaps with research and development needs to commercialize the process by 2030. Finally, work includes a commercialization roadmap/development pathway outlining the major milestones to move to a commercially operating CCC-ES system. (4) Phase II pre-FEED project plan: SES completed a project plan for the Phase II pre-FEED analysis using the same host site as in the Phase I conceptual study.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Demonstration of Scaled-Production of Rare Earth Oxides and Critical Materials from U. S. Coal-Based Sources (Final Report)

The project objective was to demonstrate scaled production of high purity rare earth oxides (REO), nominally exceeding 90% grade, from coal refuse sources using innovative technologies that reduce cost and improve environmental outcomes relative to traditional rare earth processing technologies. The project utilized a critical material pilot plant constructed and tested as part of a previous U.S. Department of Energy project. Target performance criteria was a 50% reduction in production cost based on previous optimum values, 150% increase in recovery and greater than 2% concentrates of rare earth oxides, cobalt and manganese. Concentrate production goals were to produce a rare earth mix oxide product at a rate of 200 grams per day having a minimum purity of 50% as well as products of cobalt and manganese having a minimum purity of 2%. A previous pilot plant investigation identified acid cost as the major contributor to an operating cost that made the recovery of rare earth and other critical metals from bituminous coal sources economically challenging. As such, acid cost reduction was a major target using bio-oxidation reactors to produce sulfuric acid from naturally occurring coal pyrite. Based on laboratory data, a bio-oxidation circuit was designed for the pilot plant to produce 7.5 l/min of acid using two 11-m3 (3000 gallon) reactors equipped with 40 hp aerators for air dispersion. The pilot-scale tests revealed that acid concentration equivalent to as high as 1.0 M sulfuric acid could be continuously produced. However, the bio-acid contained exceptionally high iron concentrations, which complicated downstream processing of the pregnant leach solution (PLS). A TEA of the bio-oxidation circuit showed that production cost was approximately $0.13 per kg acid equivalent if produced using a four-day retention time in the reactors. This value represents a 48% reduction from that of purchased bulk sulfuric acid. Calcination (or roasting) studies were conducted on coarse refuse from West Kentucky No. 13 and Fire Clay coal seam sources. The test results revealed the potential to increase recovery by nearly 100% using temperatures between 500°C to 700°C with light REE recovery value being the most improved. Acid baking of the calcined products using sulfuric acid at 250°C increased heavy rare earth recovery from around 40% to 80% while decreasing the acid requirements by over 50%. The existing pilot plant was upgraded for the pilot scale demonstration of REE and CM recovery. The primary feedstocks were West Kentucky No.13 and heap leach pregnant leach solution (PLS) while a secondary feedstock was a lignite waste material from a construction sand operation. The pilot scale operation started with PLS generation through leaching followed by iron and aluminum removal, nominally at 3.3 and 4.5 pH, respectively. Leaching lixiviants used for the test were industrial grade sulfuric acid or bio-acid generated at the pilot scale facility. For most of the tests, the solid feed rate was 200 lb/hr whereas lixiviant was added at 2 gpm to provide an optimal residence time of 45 minutes. Following the contaminant removal step, several different process schematics were tested with the goal of maximizing REE recovery and purity. In the first test, direct processing of aluminum precipitation raffinate for REE recovery using oxalic acid at pH 1.5 was investigated. Overall REE recovery was approximately 45%. Unfortunately, elevated calcium content in the PLS significantly impacted the RE-Oxide product grade. Similarly, high calcium content decreased both the product purity and grades of CM products. As such, a new flowsheet was tested with the same initial process schematic but different precipitation stages for REEs and CMs at pH 6.0 and 9.0, respectively. It was noted that the overlapping precipitation behavior of Co, Ni and Zn with REEs limited the applicability of this process schematic. While this change increased the RE-Oxide grade from 36% in the first test to 87%, the loss of critical metals to the REE cake and bypass of the REEs to the CM cake significantly impacted the recovery of both REEs and CMs. Therefore, the modified process flowsheet combined oxalic acid precipitation stage raffinate and redissolved CM cake filtrate to maximize both the recovery and purity of the products. Consequently, a RE-Oxide product with 85% purity and CM cakes with over 19% Co, 38% Ni, 14% Zn and 9% Mn content were generated with significantly higher recoveries. While the modified process flowsheet improved recoveries and grades, elemental losses observed in separate precipitation and redissolution losses inspired the adaptation of a single precipitation stage at pH 9.0 for both REEs and CMs. This change was anticipated to maximize the REE recovery while minimizing the costs associated with separated redissolution and processing stages. As expected, REE recovery in this new circuit arrangement was over 56% with a product grade of over 87% RE-Oxide content. Similarly, Co, Ni, Mn, and Zn recoveries of 54%, 40%, 67%, and 66%, respectively, were achieved. Unfortunately, the elevated calcium content present in the solution due to its precipitation at pH 9.0 caused a decrease in the CM cake quality. Therefore, the final process flowsheet involved the addition of calcium oxalate precipitation following the oxalic acid precipitation stage, which effectively eliminated calcium contamination of the CM products. Finally, the pilot scale experiments conducted using bio-acid achieved comparable REE leaching recoveries to the conventional sulfuric acid leaching. Elevated iron concentration in the solution caused the co-precipitation of REEs with the iron and aluminum cake, resulting in the REE losses. Furthermore, elevated iron content bypassing the iron and aluminum precipitation stages contaminated the metal sulfide and manganese cake, respectively. A techno-economic analysis was performed based on a commercial facility capable of treating 500 tph of coal-based material. The production cost for West Kentucky No. 13 coarse refuse material ranged from approximately $500-$700/kg of total rare earth oxide whereas the lignite source had significantly lower production cost of $100-$300/kg. The significant difference in cost was due to the easier leaching characteristics of the lignite material and the higher feed concentrations. All process scenarios resulted in a negative net present value (NPV). For the lignite feedstock, laboratory REE leach recovery values were about 30% higher than the pilot plant data. Using the lab leach results, a positive net present value was achieved and the production cost decreased from $100-$300 $/kg to less than $150/kg of total REO.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2023

Scaling from Flux Towers to Ecosystem Models: Regional Constraints on Carbon Cycle Processes from Atmospheric Carbonyl Sulfide (Final Report)

DOE supported research suggests that gross primary productivity (GPP) is largely underestimated by global earth system models [Welp et al., 2011], reflecting the persistent challenge in extrapolating from local-scale GPP observations to global-scale earth system models. This poor understanding of GPP at large spatial scales is of particular concern in tropical forests. In tropical forests, some earth systems models forecast a powerful feedback between a warming climate and a decline in GPP resulting in forest dieback. While this simulated feedback is intensely debated, we lack robust large-scale constraints on GPP that are needed to resolve this debate. In particular, carbon dioxide measurements provide valuable information on net carbon flux, but not on the gross flux associated with GPP. Here we conducted a study of regional-to-global scale GPP using atmospheric carbonyl sulfide to provide a new constraint on GPP mechanisms in earth system models. Our project activities integrated modeling, in situ measurement, and remote sensing techniques to resolve GPP for the Amazon as well as global scale trends. The results of this work included initiating airborne carbonyl sulfide monitoring in the Amazon, training for postdocs and graduate students at a Hispanic Serving Institution, fundamental advances in carbonyl sulfide budgets [e.g. Hilton et al., Nature Climate Change, 2017], and high-profile publications that focused on GPP trends for the Amazon [Stinecipher et al., GRL, 2022] and global historical GPP trends [Campbell, et al., Nature, 2017]. Based on the suggestion of our DOE program manager, we published a state-of-the-science commentary to the scientific community on GPP monitoring with COS [Campbell et al., EOS, 2017] which was selected as the cover story. DOE support was acknowledged in all reports. The importance of this research to understanding climate change was communicated to the general public through community seminars (Rotary, Public Libraries, State Parks), an op-ed (SF Chronicle), and interviews in the mass media including two stories in the New York Times (4/5/17; 7/30/18), one of which was especially widely read after it was featured in the New York Time’s Quote of the Day.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗