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At least 1,495 records · Page 83
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Guide to Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques

Nondestructive evaluation (NDE), alternately known as nondestructive examination (NDE), (commonly used within the nuclear industry), nondestructive testing (NDT) (commonly used in the aerospace and petrochemical industry), and nondestructive inspection (NDI) (commonly used within the military), are as the name implies test and assessment technologies designed to detect and characterize components without damaging or compromising the component’s ability to perform its design function. The most common application is detection of flaws caused either by manufacturing anomalies, service or environmental stresses, or natural material aging. More generally, applications may include estimation of mechanical and material properties, stress/strain, and dynamic response behavior. Post-manufacturing inspections frequently enjoy unfettered access to the component or part that may allow more thorough examinations, while in-service examinations after components have been in use may impose severe access limitations for in-situ testing. If flaws are detected, they must then be evaluated relative to their size, location, growth rate, growth mechanism, and likelihood that they are or will become a liability to the component’s function or performance. NDE is comprised of a large family of specific test disciplines including visual inspection, dimensional metrology, ultrasound, radiography, penetrant test, magnetic particle test, leak test, eddy current tests, potential drop tests, flash and vibro thermography, shearography, acoustic emissions, and many other methods. This section provides discussion on general NDE science and considerations for specific technique selection.

nondestructive, examination, inspection, NDE, NDT↗
DOE OSTI2013

Land Use Manager Application Ensures Protectiveness Following Remediation on the Oak Ridge Reservation - 13355

Long-term stewardship is the set of activities necessary to return contaminated land to safe and beneficial use. The activities include physical and legal controls to prevent inappropriate exposure to contamination left in place at a site. It is the longest phase of the Department of Energy's Environmental Management Program and ensures the protection of human health and the environment for varied end uses. At the Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Reservation an automated program has been developed and implemented that tracks the multitude of long-term stewardship activities. The Oak Ridge Reservation is a large site that currently has over 50 actions requiring long-term stewardship activities. The Oak Ridge Reservation consists primarily of three plant sites, and long-term stewardship will enable these sites to be leased to private entities (East Tennessee Technology Park), modernized for an evolving national security mission (Y-12 National Security Complex), and revitalized to continue multi-disciplinary research (Oak Ridge National Laboratory). The varied site end uses of the individual plant sites coupled with the multitude of controls required by leaving waste in place presents challenges. A single remedial action may include surveillance and maintenance activities, media monitoring, property record notices as well as physical controls such as fences and signs. Thus, the array of long-term stewardship activities is complex and intermingled (over 200 inspections each year at various frequencies are required currently) and requires an effective tracking program, termed the Land Use Manager. The Land Use Manager is a web-based data management application for use by personnel responsible for implementing, maintaining, and verifying engineering and land use controls on the Oak Ridge Reservation. The program is a data entry and tracking tool, as well as a notification tool. The status and performance of engineering and land use controls are checked annually for evaluation in the required Remediation Effectiveness Report, and the automated Land Use Manager collects, maintains, tracks, notifies, monitors, and manages the information necessary to perform this evaluation. Land Use Manager tracks site information including type of contamination, regulatory requirements, locates land use controls; provides information on inspections, certification, and reporting; and provides reports. Most data access features, e.g., view, print, query, and download, are available to all users; however, data input, updating, and editing are restricted to the personnel directly responsible for monitoring and inspection. The Land Use Manager application was developed for the Department of Energy Oak Ridge Office by URS - CH2M Oak Ridge LLC, Restoration Services Incorporated, and MIJARA Corporation to meet the specific needs of long-term stewardship tracking on the Oak Ridge Reservation. The successful implementation of long-term stewardship enables the future government and private activities being planned on the Oak Ridge Reservation to proceed. (authors)

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2016

Cosmic Ray Muon Radiography of Spent Fuel in Dry Storage Casks

In the absence of a permanent repository or reprocessing facilities, highly radioactive spent nuclear fuel bundles are typically placed in long-term storage in above ground casks. These dry storage casks are heavily shielded to prevent the escape of radiation from the contents to the environment. Casks under international safeguards are monitored to detect diversion of spent fuel. The heavy shielding of the cask walls also precludes inspection of cask contents with typical radiographic probes. When international safeguards inspectors need to verify cask contents (which may be necessary to recover from a loss of continuity of knowledge), the casks must be moved back into a cooling pool to be safely opened and visually inspected. This time-consuming procedure is invasive and potentially dangerous. A non-destructive radiographic method to verify a cask's contents in situ would therefore be a useful safeguards tool. Highly energetic cosmic ray muons are an alternative tomographic probe. Since muons are colorless leptons, they do not participate in strong interactions with nucleons, and their large mass suppresses radiative energy loss while passing through materials. These properties allow muons to penetrate dense shielding that defeats more typical probes like photons and neutrons. Measurements of the scattering of muons that pass through objects provide information on the object's internal structure. This summary describes the first measurements using cosmic ray muons to inspect the contents of a partially loaded dry storage cask. We show that partial defects in the cask loading can be identified with this technique. This data shows that cosmic ray muons are an effective radiographic probe of dry storage casks. This technique may be useful for international safeguards inspectors wishing to verify a cask's contents without opening it. The analysis techniques described here allow the column of missing fuel bundles to be determined, but not the row. Recording data from several positions around the cask would allow ambiguities in x-y position to be resolved. Alternatively, a detector could be designed such that it surrounds the cask and provides a full image of the casks interior. Improved measurements and the design of optimized cask imaging instruments are being explored. (authors)

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Framework for structural online health monitoring of aging and degradation of secondary piping systems due to some aspects of erosion - 330

This paper describes the current state of research related to critical aspects of erosion and selected aspects of degradation of secondary piping systems in nuclear power plants (NPPs). The paper also proposes a framework for online health monitoring of aging and degradation of secondary piping. The framework consists of an integrated multi-sensor modality system, which can be used to monitor different piping configurations under different degradation conditions. The paper analyses the currently known degradation mechanisms and available monitoring techniques and practices. Based on this analysis, the structural health monitoring framework is proposed. There is unanimous agreement between industry experts and academic researchers that identifying and prioritizing inspection locations in secondary piping systems would eliminate many excessive in-service inspections. The proposed structural health monitoring framework takes aim at answering this challenge by combining long range guided wave technologies with other monitoring techniques, which can significantly increase the inspection length and pinpoint the locations that degraded the most. More widely, the paper suggests research efforts aimed at developing, validating, and deploying online corrosion monitoring techniques for complex geometries, which are pervasive in NPPs This transition to condition-based, risk-informed automated maintenance will contribute to a significant reduction of operations and maintenance costs that account for 80% of nuclear power generation costs. To address the issue of rising operating costs and economic viability, in 2017, companies that operate the national nuclear energy fleet started the Delivering the Nuclear Promise Initiative, which is a 3-year program aimed at maintaining operational focus and safety, increasing value, and improving efficiency. (authors)

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effective Defect Detection Using Instance Segmentation for NDI

Ultrasonic testing is a common Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI) method used in aerospace manufacturing. However, the complexity and size of the ultrasonic scans make it challenging to identify defects through visual inspection or machine learning models. Using computer vision techniques to identify defects from ultrasonic scans is an evolving research area. In this study, we used instance segmentation to identify the presence of defects in the ultrasonic scan images of composite panels that are representative of real components manufactured in aerospace. We used two models based on Mask- RCNN (Detectron 2) and YOLO 11 respectively. Additionally, we implemented a simple statistical pre-processing technique that reduces the burden of requiring custom-tailored pre-processing techniques. Our study demonstrates the feasibility and effectiveness of using instance segmentation in the NDI pipeline by significantly reducing data pre-processing time, inspection time, and overall costs.

computer vision techniques↗
DOE OSTI2022

Methods for estimating X-ray machine output through measurement and simulation

We report ball grid arrays are increasingly being applied in the electronics industry and may require X-ray inspection to ensure the integrity and correct placement of solder pins. However, as the architecture of integrated circuits continues to narrow while simultaneously growing more complex, the risk of electronic failure due to radiation damage increases. While medical X-ray devices have been held to high standards and are repeatedly shown to be well characterized, devices used for electronic inspection are often lacking detailed characterization. This study presents unique methods to solve for important properties in X-ray inspection devices such as source to object distance and energy spectrum. This information can then be applied to Monte Carlo models to achieve better overall dose estimates to electronics, which will lead to superior manufactured products. Since X-ray devices can vary greatly in source characteristics, this work investigates spectral measurement and Monte Carlo representation of three X-ray devices. For a Philips SRO 33 100 medical diagnostic device, the spectral output followed expected trends given by the prediction software SpekCalc and Spektr. For the Dage XD7500NT, direct measurement showed a spectral artifact that through the use of Gafchromic films, was shown to be a contributing effect in the dose output. For the Rad Source RS1800, a high powered irradiation device, direct spectral measurement was not achieved. However, a Monte Carlo model using an assumed spectra was found to match ion chamber measurements to a high degree.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2017

Force measurement-based discontinuity detection during friction stir welding

Here, the objective of this work is to develop a method for detecting the creation of discontinuities ( i.e. , voids, volume defects) during friction stir welding. Friction stir welding is inherently cost effective, however, the need for significant weld inspection can make the process cost prohibitive. A new approach to weld inspection is required in which an in situ characterization of weld quality can be obtained, reducing the need for postprocess inspection. To this end, friction stir welds with subsurface voids and without voids were created. The subsurface voids were generated by reducing the friction stir tool rotation frequency and increasing the tool traverse speed in order to create “colder” welds. Process forces were measured during welding, and the void sizes were measured postprocess by computerized tomography ( i.e. , 3D X-ray imaging). Two parameters, based on frequency domain content and time-domain average of the force signals, were found to be correlated with void size. Criteria for subsurface void detection and size prediction were developed and shown to be in good agreement with experimental observations. Furthermore, with the proper choice of data acquisition system and frequency analyzer the occurrence of subsurface voids can be detected in real time.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2015

Critical processes and parameters in the development of accident tolerant fuels drop-in capsule irradiation tests

The goal of the Accident Tolerant Fuel (ATF) program is to develop the next generation of Light Water Reactor (LWR) fuels with improved performance, reliability, and safety characteristics during normal operations and accident conditions and with reduced waste generation. An irradiation test series has been defined to assess the performance of proposed ATF concepts under normal LWR operating conditions. The Phase I ATF irradiation test series is planned to be performed as a series of drop-in capsule tests to be irradiated in the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) operated by the Idaho National Laboratory (INL). Design, analysis, and fabrication processes for ATR drop-in capsule experiment preparation are presented in this paper to demonstrate the importance of special design considerations, parameter sensitivity analysis, and precise fabrication and inspection techniques for figure innovative materials used in ATF experiment assemblies. A Taylor Series Method sensitivity analysis approach was used to identify the most critical variables in cladding and rodlet stress, temperature, and pressure calculations for design analyses. The results showed that internal rodlet pressure calculations are most sensitive to the fission gas release rate uncertainty while temperature calculations are most sensitive to cladding I.D. and O.D. dimensional uncertainty. The analysis showed that stress calculations are most sensitive to rodlet internal pressure uncertainties, however the results also indicated that the inside radius, outside radius, and internal pressure were all magnified as they propagate through the stress equation. This study demonstrates the importance for ATF concept development teams to provide the fabricators as much information as possible about the material properties and behavior observed in prototype testing, mock-up fabrication and assembly, and chemical and mechanical testing of the materials that may have been performed in the concept development phase. Special handling, machining, welding, and inspection of materials, if known, should also be communicated to the experiment fabrication and inspection team.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Machine learning for ultrasonic nondestructive examination of welding defects: A systematic review

Recent years have seen a substantial increase in the application of machine learning (ML) for automated analysis of nondestructive examination (NDE) data. One of the applications of interest is the use of ML for the analysis of data from in-service inspection of welds in nuclear power and other industries. These types of inspections are performed in accordance with criteria described in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and require the use of reliable NDE techniques. The rapid growth in ML methods and the diversity of possible approaches indicate a need to assess the current capabilities of ML and automated data analysis for NDE and identify any gaps or shortcomings in current ML technologies as applied to the automated analysis of NDE data. In particular, there is a need to determine the impact of ML on the NDE reliability. This paper discusses the findings from a literature survey on the current state of ML for the automated analysis of data from ultrasonic NDE of weld flaws. It discusses an overview of ultrasonic NDE as used for weld inspections in nuclear power and other industries. Herein, data sets and ML models used in the literature are summarized, along with a generally applicable workflow for ML. Findings on the capabilities, limitations and potential gaps in feature selection, data selection, and ML model optimization are discussed. The paper identified several needs for quantifying and validating the performance of ML methods for ultrasonic NDE, including the need for common data sets.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Development and testing of coarse-grained models for ultrasonic simulations of cast austenitic stainless steel

Ultrasonic inspection of cast austenitic stainless steel (CASS) in the nuclear industry is particularly challenging because of sound field scatter and attenuation caused by the coarse-grained microstructure. Modeling and simulation are important tools in ultrasonic testing, as they can be used to help address key aspects of inspections, such as developing new probe designs, predicting inspection reliability, and testing phased-array focal laws. However, developing a useful and reliable CASS model is challenging due to the many grain interfaces and crystalline orientations that must be captured. We demonstrate a method of creating a realistic CASS model that is usable in CIVA, a commercially available modeling and simulation software platform. Using polished and chemically etched sections, we generate models of a coarse-grained equiaxed specimen and a columnar specimen. We also test an alternative method of generating a coarse-grained model using Voronoi regions. We qualitatively compare sound field scatter and quantitatively compare sound field attenuation and beam partitioning in simulated sound fields to those of laboratory-measured sound fields. Results show that the Voronoi models perform as well as or better than the models based on actual grain morphology. Here we also show that model-to-model randomness in Voronoi grain structure can impact the magnitude of a simulated echo response by a factor of two or more. Although CASS models are potentially a good depiction of reality for a given scenario, they should not be considered representative since CASS morphology can change significantly from specimen to specimen or within the same specimen.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Radiopaque Resists for Two-Photon Lithography To Enable Submicron 3D Imaging of Polymer Parts via X-ray Computed Tomography

Two-photon lithography (TPL) is a high-resolution additive manufacturing (AM) technique capable of producing arbitrarily complex three-dimensional (3D) microstructures with features 2–3 orders of magnitude finer than human hair. This process finds numerous applications as a direct route toward the fabrication of novel optical and mechanical metamaterials, miniaturized optics, microfluidics, biological scaffolds, and various other intricate 3D parts. As TPL matures, metrology and inspection become a crucial step in the manufacturing process to ensure that the geometric form of the end product meets design specifications. X-ray-based computed tomography (CT) is a nondestructive technique that can provide this inspection capability for the evaluation of complex internal 3D structure. However, polymeric photoresists commonly used for TPL, as well as other forms of stereolithography, poorly attenuate X-rays due to the low atomic number (Z) of their constituent elements and therefore appear relatively transparent during imaging. We present the development of optically clear yet radiopaque photoresists for enhanced contrast under X-ray CT. We have synthesized iodinated acrylate monomers to formulate high-Z photoresist materials that are capable of forming 3D microstructures with sub-150 nm features. In addition, we have developed a formulation protocol to match the refractive index of the photoresists to the immersion medium of the objective lens so as to enable dip-in laser lithography, a direct laser writing technique for producing millimeter-tall structures. Our radiopaque photopolymer then resists increase X-ray attenuation by a factor of more than 10 times without sacrificing the sub-150 nm feature resolution or the millimeter-scale part height. Thus, our resists can successfully replace existing photopolymers to generate AM parts that are suitable for inspection via X-ray CT. By providing the “feedstock” for radiopaque AM parts, our resist formulation is expected to play a critical role in enabling fabrication of functional polymer parts to tight design tolerances.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Ultrasonic guided waves in eccentric annular pipes

This paper studies the feasibility of using ultrasonic guided waves to rapidly inspect tubes and pipes for possible eccentricity. While guided waves are well established in the long range inspection of structures such as pipes and plates, studies for more complex cross sections are limited and analytical solutions are often difficult to obtain. Recent developments have made the Semi Analytical Finite Element (SAFE) method widely accessible for researchers to study guided wave properties in complex structures. Here the SAFE method is used to study the effect of eccentricity on the modal structures and velocities of lower order guided wave modes in thin pipes of diameters typically of interest to the industry. Results are validated using experiments. The paper demonstrates that even a small eccentricity in the pipe can strongly affect guided wave mode structures and velocities and hence shows potential for pipe eccentricity inspection.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2018

Anisotropic modeling and joint-MAP stitching for improved ultrasound model-based iterative reconstruction of large and thick specimens

One-sided non-destructive evaluation (NDE) is widely used to inspect materials, such as concrete structures in nuclear power plants (NPP). A widely used method for one-sided NDE is the synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT). The SAFT algorithm produces reasonable results when inspecting simple structures. However, for complex structures, such as heavily reinforced thick concrete structures, SAFT results in artifacts and hence there is a need for a more sophisticated inversion technique. Model-based iterative reconstruction (MBIR) algorithms, which are typically equivalent to regularized inversion techniques, offer a powerful framework to incorporate complex models for the physics, detector miscalibrations and the materials being imaged to obtain high quality reconstructions. Previously, we have proposed an ultrasonic MBIR method that signifcantly improves reconstruction quality compared to SAFT. However, the method made some simplifying assumptions on the propagation model and did not disucss ways to handle data that is obtained by raster scanning a system over a surface to inspect large regions. In this paper, we propose a novel MBIR algorithm that incorporates an anisotropic forward model and allows for the joint processing of data obtained from a system that raster scans a large surface. We demonstrate that the new MBIR method can produce dramatic improvements in reconstruction quality compared to SAFT and suppresses articfacts compared to the perviously presented MBIR approach.

Almansouri, Hani↗
DOE OSTI2023

Ceci N’est Pas Une Bombe: Lessons from a Field Experiment Using Neutron and Gamma Measurements to Confirm the Absence of Nuclear Weapons

In March 2023, the UN Institute for Disarmament Research held a verification experiment that included a mockup onsite inspection at a former military facility in the municipality of Menzingen, Switzerland. The experiment included a visit to the site by an inspection team, accompanied by the host team. Among other activities, radiation measurements were used to confirm the non-nuclear nature of selected items stored onsite. In this paper, we discuss the neutron and gamma measurement systems used during the experiment and the inspection protocols followed to confirm the absence of nuclear weapons. Furthermore, results from the experiment and a laboratory reproduction are presented, before concluding with lessons learned for how absence-confirmation measurements can help support verification of future arms control agreements.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2019

Deferred Verification: The Role of New Verification Technologies and Approaches

Researchers at UNIDIR have recently proposed a fundamentally new approach to nuclear arms control verification, dubbed "deferred verification." The concept forgoes inspections at sensitive nuclear sites and inspections of nuclear materials or components in classified form. To implement this concept, a state first divides its territory into a closed segment and an open segment. The total fissile material inventory in the closed segment, which includes the weapon complex, is known and declared with very high accuracy. Essentially no inspections take place in the closed segment. Yet, inspectors have access to the open segment, which includes in particular the civilian nuclear sector. The fissile material inventory in the open segment is known with less accuracy, but uncertainties can be reduced over time using methods of nuclear archaeology. Deferred verification relies primarily on established safeguards techniques and avoids many unresolved verification challenges, including for example the need for information barriers for warhead confirmation measurements. At the same time, deferred verification faces some unique challenges. In this work, we explore some of these challenges and offer possible solutions while maintaining the strengths of the concept; to do so, we examine possible noncompliance strategies in which a state would seek to withhold a higher-than-declared inventory.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2014

mJIVE-20: A survey for compact mJy radio objects with the very long baseline array

We present the description and early results of the mJy Imaging VLBA Exploration at 20 cm (mJIVE-20). mJIVE-20 is a large project on the Very Long Baseline Array which is systematically inspecting a large sample of mJy radio sources, pre-selected from the Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty cm (FIRST) survey made with the Very Large Array, to identify any compact emission that may be present. The survey is being undertaken using filler time on the VLBA, which utilizes short segments scheduled in bad weather and/or with a reduced number of antennas, during which no highly rated science projects can be scheduled. The newly available multifield capability of the VLBA makes it possible for us to inspect of the order of 100 sources per hour of observing time with a 6.75σ detection sensitivity of approximately 1 mJy beam{sup –1}. The results of the mJIVE-20 survey are made publicly available as soon as the data are calibrated. After 18 months of observing, over 20,000 FIRST sources have been inspected, with 4336 very long baseline interferometry detections. These initial results suggest that within the range 1-200 mJy, fainter sources are somewhat more likely to be dominated by a very compact component than brighter sources. Over half of all arcsecond-scale mJy radio sources contain a compact component, although the fraction of sources that are dominated by milliarcsecond scale structure (where the majority of the arcsecond scale flux is recovered in the mJIVE-20 image) is smaller at around 30%-35%, increasing toward lower flux densities. Significant differences are seen depending on the optical classification of the source. Radio sources with a stellar/point-like counterpart in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) are more likely to be detected overall, but this detection likelihood appears to be independent of the arcsecond-scale radio flux density. The trend toward higher radio compactness for fainter sources is confined to sources that are not detected in SDSS or that have counterparts classified as galaxies. These results are consistent with a unification model of active galactic nuclei in which less luminous sources have on average slower radio jets, with lower Doppler suppression of compact core emission over a wider range of viewing angles.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

DISTRIBUTION OF PLASMOIDS IN POST-CORONAL MASS EJECTION CURRENT SHEETS

Recently, the fragmentation of a current sheet in the high-Lundquist-number regime caused by the plasmoid instability has been proposed as a possible mechanism for fast reconnection. In this work, we investigate this scenario by comparing the distribution of plasmoids obtained from Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) observational data of a coronal mass ejection event with a resistive magnetohydrodynamic simulation of a similar event. The LASCO/C2 data are analyzed using visual inspection, whereas the numerical data are analyzed using both visual inspection and a more precise topological method. Contrasting the observational data with numerical data analyzed with both methods, we identify a major limitation of the visual inspection method, due to the difficulty in resolving smaller plasmoids. This result raises questions about reports of log-normal distributions of plasmoids and other coherent features in the recent literature. Based on nonlinear scaling relations of the plasmoid instability, we infer a lower bound on the current sheet width, assuming the underlying mechanism of current sheet broadening is resistive diffusion.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Detecting optical transients using artificial neural networks and reference images from different surveys

ABSTRACT We present a technique to detect optical transients based on an artificial neural networks method. We describe the architecture of two networks capable of comparing images of the same part of the sky taken by different telescopes. One image corresponds to the epoch in which a potential transient could exist; the other is a reference image of an earlier epoch. We use data obtained by the Dr. Cristina V. Torres Memorial Astronomical Observatory and archival reference images from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. We trained a convolutional neural network and a dense layer network on simulated source samples and then tested the trained networks on samples created from real image data. Autonomous detection methods replace the standard process of detecting transients, which is normally achieved by source extraction of a difference image followed by human inspection of the detected candidates. Replacing the human inspection component with an entirely autonomous method would allow for a rapid and automatic follow-up of interesting targets of opportunity. The toy-model pipeline that we present here is not yet able to replace human inspection, but it might provide useful hints to identify potential candidates. The method will be further expanded and tested on telescopes participating in the Transient Optical Robotic Observatory of the South Collaboration.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗